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  • Christianity
  • Did you mean: Christianity (in Christianity), Fasting and Abstinence: Christianity, Western Christianity, Christianity (Lyrics - The Wolfgang Press), Eastern Orthodox Christianity More...



  • Dictionary:
  • Chris·ti·an·i·ty (krĭs'chē-ăn'ĭ-tē, krĭs'tē-)

  • Home Library Literature ; Language Dictionary
  • n. The Christian religion, founded on the life and teachings of Jesus. Christians as a group; Christendom. The state or fact of being a Christian. pl., -ties. A particular form or sect of the Christian religion: the Christianities of antiquity.




  • British History: Christianity
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  • Home Library History, Politics ; Society British History
  • Christianity, derived from Judaism to become the dominant religion of western Europe, has underpinned much of Britain's cultural heritage for fourteen centuries. Urban Christianity was sufficiently vibrant to send three bishops (London, York, Colchester) to the Council of Arles (314). Paganism, despite a brief revival 360-80, was in decline as the century ended, when historical figures such as Ninian and Patrick began to emerge. On the arrival of Anglo-Saxon invaders with their gods Woden and Thor, British Christianity was virtually extinguished except for the western Celtic fringes. Monasticism had reached the Celts at a formative stage in their Christianity, and monks rather than bishops led the church. Patrick (c.390-461) evangelized Ireland, Ninian (c.360-c.432) the Picts of Galloway, and Kentigern (d. 612) Strathclyde; Illtud (d. c.540) and David (c.530-c.589) worked in Wales, Columba settled in Iona (c.563), whence Aidan brought Christianity to Lindisfarne (635). When Roman missionaries under Augustine arrived in Kent (597), divergences between the two strands arising from differences in organization and disagreement about the date of Easter led to clashes unresolved until the Synod of Whitby (664), when Roman customs prevailed. Conversion had sometimes been slow, though helped when a ruler embraced the new faith ( Æthelbert of Kent, Edwin of Northumbria), but a brief golden age followed statesman-archbishop Theodore's reorganization of dioceses, which produced scholars such as Bede, and missionaries like Boniface of Crediton. Attacks from Viking raiders during the 9th cent. destroyed religious houses but did not totally destroy the church.For two centuries after about 1050, sustained attempts were made to apply gospel principles and canon law to society generally, through Gregorian reform, clergy discipline, and then modification of lay life. The Norman Conquest, which joined England politically and ecclesiastically with Europe's main states, led to a revival of religious life. Edward the Confessor had already rebuilt the abbey church at Westminster, but ecclesiastical administration was reorganized, cathedrals commenced, and the cathedral school at Oxford grew into a university. Monasticism again flourished, but with changed structure: diverging from the original Benedictines were Cluniacs, Cistercians, and Augustinians. A redemptive religion, one of Christianity's attractions was its promise of an afterlife. Since the prospect of punishment was more dramatic than that of paradise, the threat of eternal damnation was used to enforce ethics. By the 15th cent. explorers, merchants, and colonizers had started to spread Christianity beyond Europe. Empire-building not only involved colonization and trade, but active and purposeful extension of religion; the cross followed the flag, sometimes vice versa. Nevertheless, with late 20th-cent. decolonization, Christianity, far from dying in these newly independent territories, has become more vigorous, especially in Africa.The principal sacraments (or ‘mysteries’) recognized by all Christians, except quakers, are the eucharist and baptism. Other sacraments, not universally acknowledged, are confirmation, marriage, ordination, confession, and anointing of the sick. The Bible is an important primary written source for most Christians, taken literally by some, but regarded as no more than a history book by others. The greatest challenges to Christianity have been the doctrinal upheavals that led to the Reformation (and the English church's rupture from Rome) and secularism. The Census Report on Religious Worship (1851-3) caused alarm by its revelation that nearly 40 per cent of the population were unwilling or unable to attend a place of worship. While Christianity remained Britain's established religion at the end of the 20th cent., the challenge from secularism has increased, compounded by the ethnic mix from immigrants with their own religions, and a growing interest in cults.


  • English Folklore: Christianity
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  • Home Library Literature ; Language English Folklore
  • The religion which has shaped English culture for the past 1,500 years is Christianity, whether in its Catholic or its Protestant form; much English folklore embodies Christian ethics, echoes biblical themes, or presents a modified, secularized version of what was once a religious custom or festival. This ought to be self-evident, but folk-lorists have often neglected the obvious while pursuing archaic origins. They would brush aside as unimportant any element which did not spring from the distant past; moreover, many Victorians knew little about medieval Catholicism, and despised what they did know. Today, academic folkorists have a sounder historical sense, and build their interpretations on documentary evidence, not cross-cultural analogies. Regrettably, many current writers for the popular market are less rigorous. Greatly admiring prehistoric paganism, and wishing to prove it survived under a veneer of Christianity, they repeat the Victorian error by regarding intervening centuries as irrelevant except in so far as selected items can be made to support the argument for continuity.In fact, medieval and early modern Christianity deeply affected folklore. Most old calendar customs (with the important exceptions of May Day and Midsummer) are ‘holidays’ related to ‘holy days’; to Catholics, there is nothing inappropriate in having secular amusements alongside church-going. Later, Queen Elizabeth Day and November the Fifth were deliberately created by Church authorities to celebrate Protestant deliverances from Catholic threats. However, Puritan Christianity usually opposed festivals, on four grounds: that it was wrong to consider any day (except Sundays) as more significant than another; that most festivals involved ‘popish’ doctrines or practices; that religion and merrymaking should be kept apart, with the few approved holy days, for example Easter, being stripped of secular elements; and that the merrymaking was reminiscent of classical paganism. At the Reformation, and again in the 17th century, Puritans campaigned to destroy calendar customs; so did some Victorians, disapproving of the associated drunkenness, brawls, and sexual opportunities. Thus, whereas medieval Christianity encouraged lively communal celebrations, later religious opinion often opposed them.In some respects, Christianity offered strong support for folklore. Scriptural texts were cited by educated writers well into the 17th century as proving the reality of certain supernatural beings— ghosts, witches, giants, dragons, and of course demons—thus strengthening and prolonging popular belief in them. The great abundance of traditions about ghosts and witches in 19th-century folklore may reflect the seriousness with which the Church had discussed them two centuries earlier, as well as their enduring importance as an explanation for subjective experiences. In contrast, fairies lacked biblical endorsement, which may be one reason why belief in them dwindled to a pleasant whimsy. Folk medicine and verbal charms drew heavily on religion; to the users, this legitimized them, despite the opposition of Protestant clergy. Similarly, churches, churchyards, and graves were credited with various healing and magical powers because of their sanctity, as were sacraments. Many beliefs that are older and more widespread than Christianity nevertheless fitted easily into its framework; dreams, omens, and ghosts, for example, could all be viewed as sent by God with warnings or information.Fairytales and other narrative genres intended as entertainment usually have no overt religious content, though their morality is generally compatible with principles of justice and kindness. Legends, however, often do, either directly or by implication. Particularly common are stories, supposedly true, which describe God's judgements on sinners and providential protection of the virtuous, and stories involving the Devil; saints also feature in a few local legends. Others carry traditional moral messages—murder will out, ill-gotten gains never prosper, pride comes before a fall, and so on—which are of course not unique to Christianity, but have long been associated with it.See also CHURCHES, CROSS, PAGANISM, PILGRIMAGES, and SAINTS.



  • US History Encyclopedia: Christianity
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  • Home Library History, Politics ; Society US History Encyclopedia
  • Christianity, in its many forms, has been the dominant religion of Europeans and their descendants in North America ever since Columbus. It proved as adaptable to the New World as it had been to the Old, while taking on several new characteristics. The ambiguous and endlessly debated meaning of the Christian Gospels permitted diverse American groups to interpret their conduct and beliefs as Christian: from warriors to pacifists, abolitionists to slave owners, polygamists to ascetics, and from those who saw personal wealth as a sign of godliness to those who understood Christianity to mean the repudiation or radical sharing of wealth. Colonial Era The exploration of the Americas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries coincided with the Reformation and Europe's religious wars, intensifying and embittering the international contest for possession of these new territories. Spanish, Portuguese, and French settlers were overwhelmingly Catholic. English, Dutch, Swedish, and German settlers were predominantly Protestant. Each group, to the extent that it tried to convert the American Indians, argued the merits of its own brand of Christianity, but few Indians, witnessing the conquerors' behavior, could have been impressed with Jesus's teaching about the blessedness of peacemakers. Puritans created the British New England colonies in the early 1600s. They believed that the (Anglican) Church of England, despite Henry VIII's separation from Rome, had not been fully reformed or purified of its former Catholic elements. The religious compromises on which Anglicanism was based (the Thirty-nine Articles) offended them because they looked on Catholicism as demonic. The founders of Plymouth Plantation (the "Pilgrim Fathers" of 1620) were separatists, who believed they should separate themselves completely from the Anglicans. The larger group of Massachusetts Bay colonists, ten years later, remained nominally attached to the Anglican Church and regarded their mission as an attempt to establish an ideal Christian commonwealth that would provide an inspiring example to the coreligionists back in England. Neither group had foreseen the way in which American conditions would force adaptations, especially after the first generation, nor had they anticipated that the English civil wars and the Commonwealth that followed (1640–1660) would impose different imperatives on Puritans still in England than on those who had crossed the ocean. We are well informed about the New England Puritans and their reaction to seventeenth-century events because of their exceptional literacy and loquacity. From the works of Increase Mather (1639–1723) and his son Cotton (1663–1728), for example, we can reconstruct a worldview in which every storm, high tide, deformed fetus, or mild winter was a sign of God's "special providence." Theirs was, besides, a world in which devils abounded and witchcraft (notoriously at the Salem witch trials, 1692) seemed to present a real threat to the community. More southerly colonies, Virginia and the Carolinas, were commercial tobacco ventures whose far less energetic religious life was supervised by the established Church of England. Maryland began as a Catholic commercial venture but its proprietors reverted to Anglicanism in the bitterly anti-Catholic environment of the Glorious Revolution (1688–1689) in the late seventeenth century. The middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, by contrast, were more ethnically and religiously diverse almost from the beginning, including Dutch Calvinists, German Lutherans and Moravians, Swedish Baptists, and English Quakers. All these colonies, along with New England, were subjected to periodic surges of revival enthusiasm that are collectively remembered as the Great Awakening. The Awakening's exemplary figure was the spellbinding English preacher George Whitefield (1714–1770), who brought an unprecedented drama to American pulpits in the 1740s and 1750s and shocked some divines by preaching outdoors. The theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758) of Northampton, Massachusetts, welcomed the Awakening and tried to square Calvinist orthodoxy with the scientific and cognitive revolutions of Newton and the Enlightenment. Christianity in the Revolution and Early Republic By the time of the Revolution (1775–1788), growing numbers of colonists had joined radical Reformation sects, notably the Quakers and Baptists, belonged to ethnically distinct denominations like the Mennonites, or were involved in intradenominational schisms springing from Great Awakening controversies over itinerant preaching and the need for an inspired rather than a learned clergy. The U.S. Constitution's First Amendment specified that there was to be no federally established church and no federal restriction on the free exercise of religion. Some New England states retained established Christian churches after the Revolution—Congregationalism in Massachusetts, for example—but by 1833 all had been severed from the government. This political separation, however, did not imply any lessening of Christian zeal. To the contrary, the early republic witnessed another immense upsurge of Christian energy and evangelical fervor, with Baptists and Methodists adapting most quickly to a new emotional style, which they carried to the rapidly expanding settlement frontier. Spellbinding preachers like Francis Asbury (1745–1816) and Charles Grandison Finney (1792–1875) helped inspire the revivals of the "Second Great Awakening" (see Awakening, Second), and linked citizens' conversions to a range of social reforms, including temperance, sabbatarianism, and (most controversially) the abolition of slavery. Radical abolitionists like William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879) denounced the Constitution as an un-Christian pact with the devil because it provided for the perpetuation of slavery. John Brown (1800–1859), who tried to stimulate a slave uprising with his raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859, saw himself as a biblical avenger. He anticipated, rightly, that his sacrificial death, like Jesus's crucifixion, would lead to the triumph of the anti-slavery cause. Christian abolitionists who had prudently declined to join the rising, like Henry Ward Beecher (1813–1887), claimed him as a martyr. Beecher's sister Harriet published Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852, a novel saturated with the sentimental conventions of American Victorian Protestantism; it popularized the idea that abolition was a Christian imperative. In the South, meanwhile, slaves had adapted African elements to Gospel teachings and developed their own syncretic style of Christianity, well adapted to the emotional idioms of the Second Awakening. Dissatisfied with attending their masters' churches, they enjoyed emotional "ring shout" meetings in remote brush arbors, or met for whispered prayers and preaching in the slave quarters. Slave owners too thought of themselves as justified in their Christianity. Well armed with quotations to show that the Bible's authors had been slaveholders and that Jesus had never condemned the practice, they saw themselves as the guardians of a Christian way of life under threat from a soulless commercial North. The historian Eugene Genovese has shown that on purely biblical grounds they probably had the stronger argument. The early republic also witnessed the creation of new Christian sects, including the Assemblies of God, the Shakers, the Oneida Perfectionists, and the Mormons. Those with distinctive sexual practices (Shaker celibacy, Oneida "complex marriage," and Mormon polygamy) were vulnerable to persecution by intolerant neighbors who linked the idea of a "Protestant America" to a code of monogamy. The Mormons, the most thriving of all these groups, were founded by an upstate New York farm boy, Joseph Smith (1805–1844), who received a set of golden tablets from an angel. He translated them into the Book of Mormon (1830), which stands beside the Bible as scripture for Mormons, and describes the way in which Jesus conducted a mission in America after his earthly sojourn in the Holy Land. Recurrent persecution, culminating in the assassination of Smith in 1844, led the Mormons under their new leader, Brigham Young (1801–1877), to migrate far beyond the line of settlement to the Great Salt Lake, Utah, in 1846, where their experiments in polygamy persisted until 1890. Polygamy had the virtue of ensuring that the surplus of Mormon women would all have husbands. Mormonism was one of many nineteenth-and twentieth-century American churches in which membership (though not leadership) was disproportionately female. The Mormon migration was just one small part of a much larger westward expansion of the United States in the early and mid–nineteenth century, much of which was accompanied by the rhetoric of Manifest Destiny, according to which God had reserved the whole continent for the Americans. No one felt the sting of manifest destiny more sharply than the Indians. Ever since the colonial era missionaries had struggled to convert them to Christianity and to the Euro-American way of life. These missions were sometimes highly successful, as for example the Baptist mission to the Cherokees led by Evan Jones, which created a written version of their language in the early nineteenth century that facilitated translation of the Bible. The Georgia gold rush of 1829 showed, however, that ambitious settlers and prospectors would not be deterred from overrunning Indians' land merely because they were Christian Indians; their forcible removal along the Trail of Tears was one of many disgraceful episodes in white-Indian relations. Southwestern and Plains Indians, meanwhile, often incorporated Christian elements into their religious systems. The New Mexican Pueblo peoples, for example, under Spanish domination until 1848, adapted the Catholic cult of the saints to their traditional pantheon; later the Peyote Way, which spread through the Southwest and Midwest, incorporated evangelical Protestant elements. Further enriching the American Christian landscape, a large Catholic immigration from Ireland, especially after the famine of 1846–1849, tested the limits of older citizens' religious tolerance. It challenged the validity of the widely held concept of a Protestant America that the earlier tiny Catholic minority had scarcely disturbed. A flourishing polemical literature after 1830 argued that Catholics, owing allegiance to a foreign monarch, the pope, could not be proper American citizens—the idea was embodied in the policies of the Know-Nothing political party in the 1850s. Periodic religious riots in the 1830–1860 era and the coolness of civil authorities encouraged the Catholic newcomers to keep Protestants at arm's length. They set about building their own institutions, not just churches but also a separate system of schools, colleges, hospitals, orphanages, and charities, a work that continued far into the twentieth century. The acquisition of Louisiana in 1804, and the acquisition of the vast Southwest after the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), also swelled the U.S. Catholic population. Soldiers on both sides in the Civil War (1861–1865) went into battle confident that they were doing the will of a Christian God. President Lincoln, and many Union clergy, saw their side's ultimate victory as a sign of divine favor, explaining their heavy losses in the fighting according to the idea that God had scourged them for the sin of tolerating slavery for so long. The defeated Confederates, on the other hand, nourished their cult of the "lost cause" after the war by reminding each other that Jesus's mission on earth had ended in failure and a humiliating death, something similar to their own plight. The slaves, freed first by the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) and then by the Fifteenth Amendment (1865), treated President Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) as the Great Liberator and compared him to Moses, leading the Children of Israel out of their bondage in Egypt. Christianity and Industrial Society Rapid industrialization in the later nineteenth century prompted a searching reevaluation of conventional theological ethics. Fluctuations in the business cycle, leading to periodic surges of urban unemployment, made nonsense of the old rural idea that God dependably rewards sobriety and hard work with prosperity. The theologians Walter Rauschenbusch (1861–1918), George Herron (1862–1925), and Washington Gladden (1836–1918) created the Social Gospel, adapting Christianity to urban industrial life and emphasizing the community's collective responsibility toward its weakest members. Vast numbers of "new immigrants"—Catholics from Poland, Italy, and the Slavic lands; Orthodox Christians from Russia and Greece; and Jews from the Austrian and Russian empires—continued to expand America's religious diversity. They established their own churches and received help from religiously inspired Protestant groups such as the Salvation Army and the settlement house movement. Meanwhile, Christianity faced an unanticipated intellectual challenge, much of which had been generated from within. Rapid advances in historical-critical study of the Bible and of comparative religion, and the spread of evolutionary biology after Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859), forced theologians to ask whether the Genesis creation story and other biblical accounts were literally true. These issues led to a fracture in American Protestantism that persisted through the twentieth century, between liberal Protestants who adapted their religious ideas to the new intellectual orthodoxy and fundamentalists who conscientiously refused to do so. In the fundamentalists' view, strongly represented at Princeton Theological Seminary and later popularized by the Democratic politician William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925), the Bible, as God's inspired word, could not be fallible. Anyone who rejected the Genesis story while keeping faith in the Gospels was, they pointed out, making himself rather than the Bible the ultimate judge. Observers were surprised to note that in the twentieth century American church membership and church attendance rates remained high, indeed increased, at a time when they were declining throughout the rest of the industrialized world. Various theories, all plausible, were advanced to account for this phenomenon: that Americans, being more mobile than Europeans, needed a ready-made community center in each new location, especially as vast and otherwise anonymous suburbs proliferated; that church membership was a permissible way for immigrants and their descendants to retain an element of their families' former identity while assimilating in all other respects to American life; even, in the 1940s and 1950s, that the threat of atomic warfare had led to a collective "failure of nerve" and a retreat into supernaturalism. Twentieth-century Christian churches certainly did double as community centers, around which youth clubs, study classes, therapeutic activities, "singles' groups," and sports teams were organized. Members certainly could have nonreligious motives for attendance, but abundant historical and sociological evidence suggests that they had religious motives too. Christianity and Politics in the Twentieth Century Christianity remained a dynamic social force, around which intense political controversies swirled. In 1925 the Scopes Trial tested whether fundamentalists could keep evolution from being taught in schools. A high-school biology teacher was convicted of violating a Tennessee state law that prohibited the teaching of evolution, but the public-relations fallout of the case favored evolutionists rather than creationists. In the same year the Supreme Court ruled (in Pierce v. Society of Sisters) that Catholic and other religious private schools were protected under the Constitution; the legislature of Oregon (then with influential anti-Catholic Ku Klux Klan members) was ruled to have exceeded its authority in requiring all children in the state to attend public schools. In 1928 a Catholic, Al Smith (1873–1944) of New York, ran as the Democratic candidate for president in a religiously superheated campaign. Southern whites were usually a dependable Democratic block vote, but their "Bible Belt" prejudice against Catholics led them to campaign against him. This defeat was not offset until a second Catholic candidate, John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), was elected in 1960, keeping enough southern white votes to ensure a wafer-thin plurality. After this election, and especially after the popular Kennedy's 1963 assassination, which was treated by parts of the nation as martyrdom, American anti-Catholicism declined rapidly. Kennedy had declined to advocate the federal funding of parochial schools and had refused to criticize the Supreme Court when it found, in a series of cases from 1962 and 1963, that prayer and Bible-reading in public schools violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. While the Supreme Court appeared to be distancing Christianity from politics, the civil rights movement was bringing them together. A black Baptist minister, Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968), led the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) and became the preeminent civil rights leader of the 1950s and 1960s. Ever since emancipation, ministers had played a leadership role in the black community, being, usually, its most highly educated members and the men who acted as liaisons between segregated whites and blacks. King, a spellbinding preacher, perfected a style that blended Christian teachings on love, forgiveness, and reconciliation, Old Testament visions of a heaven on earth, and patriotic American rhetoric, the three being beautifully combined in the peroration of his famous "I have a dream" speech from 1963. Like Mohandas "Mahatma" Gandhi, to whom he acknowledged a debt, he knew how to work on the consciences of the dominant group by quoting scriptures they took seriously, interpreting them in such a way as to make them realize their failings as Christians. Religious leaders might disagree about exactly how the movement should proceed—King feuded with black Baptists who did not want the churches politicized, and with whites like the eight ministers whose counsel of patience and self-restraint provoked his "Letter from Birmingham Jail"—but historians of the movement now agree that he was able to stake out, and hold, the religious high ground. Among the theological influences on King was the work of Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971). Born and raised in a German evangelical family in Missouri, Niebuhr was the preeminent American Protestant theologian of the century. Reacting, like many clergy, against the superpatriotic fervor of the First World War years (in which Christian ministers often led the way in bloodcurdling denunciation of the "Huns"), he became in the 1920s an advocate of Christian pacifism. During the 1930s, however, against a background of rising totalitarianism in Europe, he abandoned this position on grounds of its utopianism and naiveté, and bore witness to a maturing grasp of Christian ethics in his masterpiece, Moral Man and Immoral Society (1932). His influential journal Christianity and Crisis, begun in 1941, voiced the ideas of Christians who believed war against Hitler was religiously justified. He became, in the 1940s and 1950s, influential among statesmen, policy makers, and foreign policy "realists," some of whom detached his ethical insights from their Christian foundations, leading the philosopher Morton White to quip that they were "atheists for Niebuhr." Niebuhr had also helped bring to America, from Germany, the theologian Paul Tillich (1886–1965), who became a second great theological celebrity in the mid-century decades, and Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945), who worked for a time in the 1930s at Union Seminary, New York, but returned before the war and was later executed for his part in a plot to assassinate Hitler. To match these Protestant theological celebrities—of whom Niebuhr's brother Richard (1894–1962) was a fourth—the Catholic Church produced its own. The émigré celebrity was the French convert Jacques Maritain (1882–1973), who wrote with brilliant insight on faith and aesthetics, while the homegrown figure was John Courtney Murray (1904–1967), whose essays on religious liberty were embodied in the religious liberty document of the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965). Men like King, the Niebuhr brothers, Maritain, Tillich, and Murray enjoyed almost the same prominence in mid-twentieth-century America that the Mathers had enjoyed in the seventeenth century, Jonathan Edwards in the eighteenth, and the Beechers in the nineteenth—another sign of the persistence of Christian energy in America. Ever since the Scopes Monkey Trial the evangelical Protestant churches had retreated from politics, but they had continued to grow, to organize (taking advantage of broadcasting technology), and to generate exceptionally talented individuals of their own. None was to have more lasting importance than Billy Graham (b. 1918), whose revivals became a press sensation in the late 1940s. Graham eschewed the sectarian squabbling that many evangelists relished. Instead he tried to create an irenic mood among all evangelicals while reaching out to liberal Protestants with an emotional message of Christian love, forgiveness, and Jesus as personal savior. He traveled worldwide, befriended every president from 1950 to 2000, and said, perhaps rightly, that more people had seen him and knew who he was than anybody else in the world. Another skilled evangelical, the Baptist Jerry Falwell (b. 1933) shared many of Graham's skills but brought them directly into politics in a way Graham had avoided. Falwell, convinced that the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, the feminist movement, the counterculture, and the changing nature of the American family were signs of decadence and sin, catalyzed the Moral Majority, a pressure group that contributed to the "Reagan Revolution" in the election of 1980. That election was particularly noteworthy as a moment in Christian history not only because of the sudden reappearance of politicized evangelicals but also because the losing candidate, President Jimmy Carter (b. 1924), was himself a self-proclaimed born-again Christian and Baptist Sunday school teacher. Nearly all America's Christian churches with a liberal inclination participated in a religious protest against nuclear weapons in the 1980s. Nearly all those with a conservative inclination participated in campaigns against legalized abortion. Indeed, as observers noted at the time, both sides in these and other sundering political controversies were strongly represented by Christian advocates. Collectively they demonstrated the extraordinary vitality and diversity of American Christianity into the third millennium. Bibliography Ahlstrom, Sidney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 vols. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1972. Albanese, Catherine L. America, Religions and Religion. 2d ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1992. Fox, Richard Wightman. Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biography. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985. Garrow, David J. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. New York: W. Morrow, 1986. Marsden, George M. Fundamentalism and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980. May, Henry F. Protestant Churches and Industrial America. 2d ed. New York: Octagon Books, 1977. Miller, Perry. The New England Mind. 2 vols. Boston: Beacon Press, 1961. Morris, Charles R. American Catholic: The Saints and Sinners who Built America's Most Powerful Church. New York: Times Books, 1997. Noll, Mark. A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W. B. Eerdman's, 1992. Ostling, Richard N., and Joan K. Ostling. Mormon America: The Power and the Promise. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1999. Raboteau, Albert J. Slave Religion: The "Invisible Institution" in the Antebellum South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Wuthnow, Robert. The Restructuring of American Religion. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988. —Patrick N. Allitt


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  • Christianity, religion founded in Palestine by the followers of Jesus. One of the world's major religions, it predominates in Europe and the Americas, where it has been a powerful historical force and cultural influence, but it also claims adherents in virtually every country of the world. Central Beliefs The central teachings of traditional Christianity are that Jesus is the Son of God, the second person of the Trinity of God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; that his life on earth, his crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension into heaven are proof of God's love for humanity and God's forgiveness of human sins; and that by faith in Jesus one may attain salvation and eternal life (see creed). This teaching is embodied in the Bible, specifically in the New Testament, but Christians accept also the Old Testament as sacred and authoritative Scripture. Christian ethics derive to a large extent from the Jewish tradition as presented in the Old Testament, particularly the Ten Commandments, but with some difference of interpretation based on the practice and teachings of Jesus. Christianity may be further generally defined in terms of its practice of corporate worship and rites that usually include the use of sacraments and that are usually conducted by trained clergy within organized churches. There are, however, many different forms of worship, many interpretations of the role of the organized clergy, and many variations in polity and church organization within Christianity. Divisions within the Religion In the two millennia of its history Christianity has been divided by schism and roiled by heresy, based on doctrinal and organizational differences. Today there are three broad divisions, Roman Catholic, Orthodox Eastern, and Protestant; but within the category of Protestantism, there is a particularly large number of divergent denominations. Because of the complexity of these differences this article will describe the history of Christianity only to 1054, when the schism between Eastern and Western churches became final. Separate articles detail the history and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Eastern Church and of the other churches of ancient origin, the Armenian Church, the Coptic Church (see Copts), the Jacobite Church, and the Nestorian Church. In the 16th cent. another major schism took place in the Western Church with the Protestant Reformation. For the Protestant churches, see Protestantism and articles on the separate churches. For the 20th-century movement that seeks to end the divisiveness in Christianity and achieve reunion, see ecumenical movement. Early Christianity Christianity is in a direct sense an offshoot of Judaism, because Jesus and his immediate followers were Jews living in Palestine and Jesus was believed by his followers to have fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies of the Messiah. Following a trend of proselytization in the Judaism of that period Christianity was from its beginnings expansionist. Its early missionaries (the most notable of whom was St. Paul, who was also responsible for the formulation of elements of Christian doctrine) spread its teachings in Asia Minor, Alexandria, Greece, and Rome. Missions have remained a major element in Christianity to the present day. For the first three centuries of Christianity, history is dependent on apologetic and religious writings; there are no chronicles (see patristic literature). Historians differ greatly on how far back the 4th-century picture of the church (which is quite clear) can be projected, especially respecting organization by bishops (each bishop a monarch in the church of his city), celebration of a liturgy entailing a sacrament and a sacrifice, and claims by the bishop of Rome to be head of all the churches (see papacy). There is evidence for these features in the 2d cent. A first problem for Christians was how to resist attempts to interpret the new beliefs in pagan terms (e.g., Gnosticism). The earliest sectarian deviations were those of Marcion and of Montanus (2d cent.). They were handled resolutely by the church; the teachers of novelty were expelled (excommunicated). For 250 years it was a martyrs' church; the persecutions were fueled by the refusal of Christians to worship the state and the Roman emperor. There were persecutions under Nero, Domitian, Trajan and the other Antonines, Maximin, Decius, Valerian, and Diocletian and Galerius; Decius ordered the first official persecution in 250. In 313, Constantine I and Licinius announced toleration of Christianity in the Edict of Milan. In the East the church passed from persecution directly to imperial control (caesaropapism), inaugurated by Constantine, enshrined later in Justinian's laws, and always a problem for the Orthodox churches. In the West the church remained independent because of the weakness of the emperor and the well-established authority of the bishop of Rome. Controversy and Growth For 300 years after A.D. 275 the church in the East was occupied with doctrinal controversies-Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, and Monotheletism. These arguments concerned the manner in which Jesus is both divine and human. Decisions were made at a series of general councils of bishops (see council, ecumenical); at them was composed the Nicene Creed. These centuries saw a series of Christian writers of unequaled influence (the Fathers of the Church): Origen, St. Athanasius, St. Basil the Great, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. John Chrysostom, and Theodoret writing in Greek; St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, and St. Augustine writing in Latin. Origen and St. Jerome had a special role in the church's work of determining and preserving the text of the Bible. From the 3d cent. monasticism was one element of the church. It was first organized by St. Basil. In the West monasticism was central to the missionary work of St. Martin (Gaul, 4th cent.) and St. Patrick (Ireland, 5th cent.). It received definitive shape from St. Benedict and St. Gregory the Great, who thereby generated a mode of life of continuing vitality in the Roman Catholic Church. German invasions slowed the conversion of Western Europe (e.g., that of England was recommenced in the 6th cent.). Most of the first invaders were converted to Arian Christianity, but the pagan Franks (with Clovis) adopted orthodox Christianity, a fact that probably helped to consolidate their rule. Out of this kingdom came Pepin and Charlemagne, who, by alliance with the papacy and proclamation of an empire (800), charted an ideal of the Middle Ages. Schism between East and West In the 7th and 8th cent. the Eastern Church lost to Islam all Asia except Asia Minor. Alienation from the West was exacerbated by the bitter struggle over iconoclasm; ecclesiastical animosity between Rome and Constantinople came to a head in the schism of the 9th cent. This schism centered on the addition of the Filioque to the Nicene Creed (see creed) in the West and on the western church's use of unleavened bread in the celebration of the mass and insistence on clerical celibacy. The division between East and West grew wider and attained a sort of legal permanence in 1054 (see Leo IX, Saint). Eastern and Western Christendom were already in the 9th cent. two different cultures; their one common tie was the Christian doctrine-even worship and practices were very different. From this time it is customary to distinguish Christian history in its Eastern and Western streams as that of the Orthodox Eastern Church and Roman Catholic Church. Bibliography See J. Lebreton and J. Zeiller, A History of the Early Church (4 vol., 1944-46; repr. 1962); H. Lietzmann, The History of the Early Church (4 vol., tr. 1961; repr. 1967); A. Finkel, The Pharisees and the Teacher of Nazareth (1964); H. Marrou et al., The Christian Centuries (1964); J. G. Davies, The Early Christian Church (1965); H. Chadwick, The Early Church (1967); R. M. Grant, Augustus to Constantine (1970); R. W. Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (1970); R. Fletcher, The Barbarian Conversion (1998).



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  • Christianity (from the Greek word Xριστός, Khristos, " Christ", literally "anointed one") is a monotheistic religion [1] based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. [2] Christians believe Jesus is the son of God, God having become man and the savior of humanity. Christians, therefore, commonly refer to Jesus as Christ or Messiah. [3] Adherents of the Christian faith, known as Christians, [4] believe that Jesus is the Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (the part of scripture common to Christianity and Judaism). The foundation of Christian theology is expressed in the early Christian ecumenical creeds, which contain claims predominantly accepted by followers of the Christian faith. [5] These professions state that Jesus suffered, died from crucifixion, was buried, and was resurrected from the dead to open heaven to those who believe in him and trust him for the remission of their sins ( salvation). [6] They further maintain that Jesus bodily ascended into heaven where he rules and reigns with God the Father. Most denominations teach that Jesus will return to judge all humans, living and dead, and grant eternal life to his followers. He is considered the model of a virtuous life, and both the revealer and physical incarnation of God. [7] Christians call the message of Jesus Christ the Gospel ("good news") and hence refer to the earliest written accounts of his ministry as gospels. Christianity began as a Jewish sect [8] [9] and is classified as an Abrahamic religion. [10] [11] [12] Originating in the eastern Mediterranean, it quickly grew in size and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th century had become the dominant religion within the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, most of the remainder of Europe was Christianized, with Christians also being a (sometimes large) religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India. [13] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, and the rest of the world, therefore Christianity is a major influence in the shaping of Western civilization. As of the early 21st century, Christianity has between 1.5 billion [14] [15] and 2.1 billion adherents. [16] Christianity represents about a quarter to a third of the world's population and is the world's largest religion. [17] In addition, Christianity is the state religion of several countries. [18]
  • Contents
  • 1 Beliefs
  • 1.1 Creeds 1.2 Jesus Christ 1.3 Death and resurrection of Jesus 1.4 Salvation 1.5 Trinity
  • 1.5.1 Trinitarians 1.5.2 Non-trinitarians
  • 1.6 Scriptures
  • 1.6.1 Catholic and Orthodox interpretations 1.6.2 Protestant interpretation
  • 1.7 Afterlife and Eschaton
  • 2 Worship
  • 2.1 Sacraments 2.2 Liturgical calendar 2.3 Symbols
  • 3 History and origins
  • 3.1 Early Church and Christological Councils 3.2 Early Middle Ages 3.3 High and Late Middle Ages 3.4 Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation 3.5 Christianity in the Modern Era
  • 4 Demographics 5 Main grouping of Christianity
  • 5.1 Catholic Church 5.2 Orthodox churches 5.3 Protestantism 5.4 Other
  • 6 Ecumenism 7 See also 8 Endnotes 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links
  • Beliefs
  • The Sermon On the Mount by Carl Heinrich Bloch, Danish painter, d. 1890.

  • Wikisource has original text related to this article: Apostles Creed

  • Wikisource has original text related to this article: Nicene Creed
  • Though there are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible on which Christianity is based, Christians share a set of beliefs that they hold as essential to their faith. [19] Creeds Main article: Creeds Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries to become statements of faith. The Apostles Creed (Symbolum Apostolorum) was developed between the second and ninth centuries. It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western Christians. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. [20] Since the Apostles Creed is still unaffected by the later Christological divisions, its statement of the articles of Christian faith remain largely acceptable to most Christian denominations:
  • belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the Holy Spirit the death, descent into hell, resurrection, and ascension of Christ the holiness of the Church and the communion of saints Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful.
  • The Nicene Creed, largely a response to Arianism, was formulated at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively [21] [22] and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431. [23] The Chalcedonian Creed, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, [24] though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox Churches, [25] taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures are perfect but are nevertheless perfectly united into one person. [26] The Athanasian Creed, received in the western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance." [27] Most Christians ( Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Protestants alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above. [28] Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements faith, even while agreeing with some creeds' substance. The Baptists have been non-creedal “in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another.” [29]:p.111 Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) and the Churches of Christ. [30] [31]:14-15 [32]:123 Jesus Christ Main articles: Christian views of Jesus, Christology, and Jesus Christ in comparative mythology The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word " Christ". [7]
  • A depiction of Jesus as a child with his mother, Mary, the Theotokos of Vladimir (12th century).
  • Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. [33] While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history, Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and " true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead," [34] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father" [35] and will ultimately return[ Acts 1:9-11] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and final establishment of the Kingdom of God. According to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical Gospels, however infancy Gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, are well documented in the Gospels contained within the New Testament. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds. Death and resurrection of Jesus Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Resurrection of Jesus Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history. [36] Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based. [37] [38] According to the New Testament Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later.[ Jn. 19:30–31] [ Mk. 16:1] [ 16:6] The New Testament mentions several resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[ 1 Cor. 15:6] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday. The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian Theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life. [39] Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions. [40] Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church. [41] Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection, [42] [43] seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues. [44] Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless."[ 1 Cor. 15:14] [45] Salvation Main article: Salvation Paul of Tarsus, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life. [46] For Paul the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are like Israel descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise".[ Gal. 3:29] [47] The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel the "children of God" and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".[ Rom. 8:9,11,16] [46] Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to both Catholic and Protestant doctrine, salvation comes by Jesus' substitutionary death and resurrection. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized. [48] [49] Martin Luther taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by God's grace, sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism. Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible. [50] In contrast Arminians, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus. [51] Trinity Main article: Trinity Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons; the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, [52] [53] [54] although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead. [55] In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God". [56] They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. [57] The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" represents both the immanence and transcendence of God. God is believed to be infinite and God's presence may be perceived through the actions of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. [58] According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three 'persons' are each eternal and omnipotent. The word trias, from which trinity is derived, is first seen in the works of Theophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), His Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)". [59] The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in Tertullian. [60] [61] In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen. [62]
  • The "Hospitality of Abraham" by Andrei Rublev: The three angels represent the three persons of God.
  • Trinitarians Main article: Trinitarianism Trinitarianism denotes those Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and Churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, theologians beginning in the third century developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as Father, God as Jesus the Son, and God as the Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply three gods, nor that each member of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God; Trinity is defined as one God in three Persons. [63] Non-trinitarians Main article: Nontrinitarianism Nontrinitarianism refers to beliefs systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology. [64] Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the Gnosticism of the Cathars in the 11th through 13th centuries, in the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, and in Restorationism during the 19th century. Scriptures Main articles: Bible and Development of the Christian Biblical canon Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts (the Old Testament and the New Testament), as the authoritative word of God. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the inerrant word of God. [65] [66] [67] Jews, Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants each define separate lists of Books of the Bible that each considers canonical. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions and councils that have convened on the subject. Every version of the complete Bible always includes books of the Jewish scriptures, the Tanakh, and includes additional books and reorganizes them into two parts: the books of the Old Testament primarily sourced from the Tanakh (with some variations), and the 27 books of the New Testament containing books originally written primarily in Greek. [68] The Roman Catholic and Orthodox canons include other books from the Septuagint which Roman Catholics call Deuterocanonical. [69] Protestants consider these books to be apocryphal. Some versions of the Christian Bible have a separate Apocrypha section for the books not considered canonical by some Churches or by the groups publishing them. [70] Catholic and Orthodox interpretations In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning. [71] Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual. [72] The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The spiritual sense is further subdivided into:
  • the allegorical sense, which includes typology. An example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.[ 1 Cor. 10:2] the moral sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching. the anagogical sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world
  • Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:
  • the injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal [73] [74] that the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held [75] that scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church" [76] and that "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome". [77]
  • Protestant interpretation
  • Clarity of Scripture Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as sola scriptura. [78] Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness." [79] He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture." [79] John Calvin wrote, "all who...follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light." [80] The Second Helvetic (Latin for "Swiss") [81] Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zurich (successor to Protestant reformer Zwingli) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches. [82]
  • Original intended meaning Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method. [83] The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is a effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text. [84] This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre as well as theological (canonical) considerations. [85] The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture." [86] Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics. [87]
  • Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology. [88] Afterlife and Eschaton Main article: Christian eschatology Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the Resurrection of the dead (see below) as well as the belief (held by Catholics, [89] [90] Orthodox [91] [92] and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death. In Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence. [93] Those who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, "holy"). [94] Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time. All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies. [95] [96] Jehovah's Witnesses deny the existence of hell. Instead, they hold that the souls of the wicked will be annihilated. [97] Worship Main article: Christian worship
  • Samples of Christian religious objects—The Holy Bible, a Crucifix, and a Rosary.
  • Justin Martyr described 2nd century Christian liturgy in his First Apology (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:
  • And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. – Justin Martyr [98]
  • Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the Gospels. Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon, or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The Lord's Prayer, or Our Father, is regularly prayed. The Eucharist (called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper) is the part of liturgical worship that consists of a consecrated meal, usually bread and wine. Justin Martyr described the Eucharist:
  • And this food is called among us Eukaristia [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Saviour, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. – Justin Martyr [98]
  • Some Christian denominations practice closed communion. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin. Most other churches practice open communion since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate. Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between " High" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and " Low" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the original Sabbath), while others do not meet on a weekly basis. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. Quakers sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak. Some Evangelical services resemble concerts with rock and pop music, dancing, and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally lead by a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (e.g., many Churches of Christ object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy). Worship can be varied for special events like baptisms or weddings in the service or significant feast days. In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children's worship is often called Sunday school or Sabbath school (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services). Sacraments Main article: Sacrament See also: Sacraments of the Catholic Church
  • The Eucharist
  • In Christian belief and practice, a sacrament is a rite, instituted by Christ, that mediates grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery. Views concerning both what rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament vary among Christian denominations and traditions. [99] The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist, however, the majority of Christians recognize seven Sacraments or Divine Mysteries: Baptism, Confirmation ( Chrismation in the Orthodox tradition), and the Eucharist, Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony. [99] Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognised by churches in the High church tradition—notably Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic and some Anglicans. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology. [99] Some Christian denominations who believe these rites do not communicate grace prefer to call them ordinances. Liturgical calendar Main article: Liturgical year Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around a liturgical calendar. This includes holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, periods of fasting such as Lent, and other pious events such as memoria or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter and Pentecost. A few churches make no use of a liturgical calendar. [100] Symbols Main article: Christian symbolism
  • An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel. Ephesus, Asia Minor.
  • The cross, which is today one of the most widely recognised symbols in the world, was used as a Christian symbol from the earliest times. [101] [102] Tertuallian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. [103] Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the fifth century. [104] Among the symbols employed by the primitive Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. From monumental sources such as tombs it is known that the symbolic fish was familiar to Christians from the earliest times. The fish was depicted as a Christian symbol in the first decades of the second century. [105] Its popularity among Christians was due principally, it would seem, to the famous acrostic consisting of the initial letters of five Greek words forming the word for fish (Ichthys), which words briefly but clearly described the character of Christ and the claim to worship of believers: Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter, meaning, Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. [105] Christians from the very beginning adorned their tombs with paintings of Christ, of the saints, of scenes from the Bible and allegorical groups. The catacombs are the cradle of all Christian art. The first Christians had no prejudice against images, pictures, or statues. The idea that they must have feared the danger of idolatry among their new converts is disproved in the simplest way by the pictures even statues, that remain from the first centuries. [106] Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (symbolic of Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolising the necessary connectedness of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from writings found in the New Testament. [104] History and origins Main article: History of Christianity

  • This section's representation of one or more viewpoints about a controversial issue may be unbalanced or inaccurate. Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
  • Early Church and Christological Councils Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the eastern Mediterranean in the mid-first century. [4] [8] [9] Its earliest development took place under the leadership of the Twelve Apostles, particularly Saint Peter and Paul the Apostle, followed by the early bishops, whom Christians considered the successors of the Apostles. From the beginning, Christians were subject to persecution. This involved punishments, including death, for Christians such as Stephen[ Acts 7:59] and James, son of Zebedee.[ Acts 12:2] Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, first in the year 64, when Emperor Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome. According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that early Church leaders Peter and Paul of Tarsus were each martyred in Rome. Further widespread persecutions of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors, most intensely under Decius and Diocletian. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and study of them is called Patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen. State persecution ceased in the 4th century, when Constantine I issued an edict of toleration in 313. On 27 February 380, Emperor Theodosius I enacted a law establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. [107] From at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization. [108] Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address the Arian heresy and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglican Communion, and many Protestant churches. [28] Nicaea was the first of a series of Ecumenical (worldwide) Councils which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology. [109] The Assyrian Church of the East did not accept the third and following Ecumenical Councils, and are still separate today. Early Middle Ages With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals. [110] The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the former barbarian tribes. Catholicism spread among the Germanic peoples (initially in competition with Arianism [110] the Celtic and Slavic peoples, the Hungarians, the Scandinavians, and the Baltic peoples. Around 500, St. Benedict set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries. [110] Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, [110] and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From the 7th century onwards, Islam conquered the Christian lands of the Middle East, North Africa and much of Spain, [111] resulting in oppression of Christianity and numerous military struggles, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and wars against the Turks. The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed ecclesiastical structure and administration. [112] In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons. [113] In the early 10th century, western monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny. [114] High and Late Middle Ages In the west, from the 11th century onward, older cathedral schools developed into universities (see University of Paris, University of Oxford, and University of Bologna.) Originally teaching only theology, these steadily added subjects including medicine, philosophy and law, becoming the direct ancestors of modern western institutions of learning. [115] Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Western Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans [116] and the Dominicans [117] founded by St. Francis and St. Dominic respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order were the Cistercians, whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals. [118]

  • Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade.
  • From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the Crusades were launched. [119] These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. [120] Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century, the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation, resulting in a schism dividing it into a Western, largely Latin branch, the Roman Catholic Church, and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch, the Orthodox Church. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical, and doctrinal issues, most notably papal primacy of jurisdiction. [121] [122] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Roman Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches. Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against the Cathar heresy, [123] various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution. [124] Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation
  • Opening of Luther's 95 Theses
  • Main articles: Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. Another major schism, the Reformation, resulted in the splintering of the Western Christendom into several Christian denominations. [125] Martin Luther in 1517 protested against the sale of indulgences and soon moved on to deny several key points of Roman Catholic doctrine. Others like Zwingli and Calvin further criticized Roman Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices. [126] The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved. [127] Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform. [128] The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Roman Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. [129] Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout Europe, the divides caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state religions in Western Europe: Lutheranism in parts of Germany and in Scandinavia and Anglicanism in England in 1534. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration. [130] See also: European wars of religion Christianity in the Modern Era In the Modern Era, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies such as liberalism, nationalism and socialism. Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity such as the Dechristianisation during the French Revolution, [131] the Spanish Civil War, and general hostility of Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution. Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own[ clarification needed] in Western Europe, while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Western Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and southern hemisphere in general, with western civilization no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Demographics Further information: Christianity by country
  • Christianity by percentage of population in each country.

  • Nations with Christianity as their state religion:       Orthodox Christianity       Protestantism       Roman Catholicism
  • With an estimated number of adherents that ranges between 1.5 billion [132] and 2.1 billion, [132] split into around 34,000 separate denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion. [133] The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33 per cent for the last hundred years. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world (around 23,000 per day) have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America (around 7,600 per day). [134] It is still the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa. [135] However it is declining in many areas including the Northern and Western United States, [136] Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain, [137] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, [138] [139] [140] South Korea, [141] Taiwan [142] and Macau [143]). In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades. [144] Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions, [145] while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general. [146] Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Armenia (Armenian Apostolic), [147] Bolivia (Roman Catholic), [148] Costa Rica (Roman Catholic), [149] Denmark (Evangelical Lutheran), [150] El Salvador (Roman Catholic), [151] England (Anglican), [152] Finland (Evangelical Lutheran ; Orthodox), [153] [154] Georgia (Georgian Orthodox), [155] Greece (Greek Orthodox), [151] Iceland (Evangelical Lutheran), [156] Liechtenstein (Roman Catholic), [157] Malta (Roman Catholic), [158] Monaco (Roman Catholic), [159] Norway (Evangelical Lutheran), [160] Scotland (Presbyterian), [161] Switzerland (Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, or Protestant—denomination varies per canton) [162] and Vatican City (Roman Catholic). [163] There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition to a specific Christian denomination. [164] Main grouping of Christianity See also: List of Christian denominations and List of Christian denominations by number of members The three primary divisions of Christianity are Roman Catholicism, the Orthodox church, and Protestantism. [32]:14 [165] There are other Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories. [166] The Nicene Creed is "accepted as authoritative by the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and major Protestant churches." [167] There is a diversity of doctrines and practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups are sometimes classified under denominations, though for theological reasons many groups reject this classification system. [168]
  • Christian Denominations in English-speaking countries
  • Australia
  • Australian Christian bodies   v • d •  e 
  • Australian Interchurch
  • Australian Evangelical Alliance  • site National Council of Churches  • site

  • Catholic ; Anglican
  • Anglican Church of Australia  • site Roman Catholic Church  • site

  • Holiness ; Pietist
  • Christian and Missionary Alliance  • site Christian Outreach Centre  • site Church of the Nazarene • site Salvation Army  • site Seventh-day Adventist Church  • site

  • Historical Protestantism
  • Australian Friends  • site Baptist Union of Australia  • site Brethren  • site Christian Reformed Churches of Australia  • site Churches of Christ  • site Fellowship of Congregational Churches  • site Lutheran Church of Australia  • site Presbyterian Church of Australia  • site Uniting Church in Australia  • site Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia  • site

  • Orthodox
  • Antiochian Orthodox of Australia ; New Z.  • site Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia  • site Serbian Orthodox of Australia ; New Z.  • site
  • Non-Chalcedonic
  • Coptic Orthodox Church in Australia  • Mel- Syd

  • Pentecostal ; Related
  • Australian Christian Churches (AOG)  • site Christian City Church Intl.  • site CRC Churches International  • site Revival Centres International  • site Vineyard Churches Australia  • site Worldwide Church of God  • site


  • Canada
  • Canadian Christian bodies   v • d •  e 
  • Canadian Interchurch
  • Canadian Council of Churches S. Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America North Am. Presbyterian ; Reformed Council

  • Anabaptist ; Friends
  • Church of the Brethren Canadian Mennonite Brethren Churches Canadian Yearly Meeting (Quakers) Mennonite Church Canada

  • Baptist ; Stone-Campbell
  • Baptist
  • Association of Regular Baptist Churches Baptist General Conference of Canada Canadian Baptist Ministries Canadian Convention of Southern Baptists Fellowship of Evgcl. Baptist Churches, Canada North American Baptist Conference
  • Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement
  • Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Evangelical Christian Church in Canada

  • Catholic ; Anglican
  • Anglican Church of Canada Anglican Church in North America Polish National Catholic Church Roman Catholic Church

  • Holiness ; Pietist
  • Christian and Missionary Alliance, Canada Church of the Nazarene Evangelical Free Church of Canada Salvation Army Seventh-day Adventists, North America Wesleyan Church

  • Lutheran
  • Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada Lutheran Church – Canada Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod

  • Methodist
  • British Methodist Episcopal Church Free Methodist Church in Canada United Church of Canada

  • Orthodox
  • Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese, N.Am. Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America Orthodox Church in America Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada
  • Non-Chalcedonic
  • Armenian Apostolic Diocese of Am. Coptic Orthodox Church in Canada

  • Pentecostal
  • Canadian Assemblies of God Church of God of Prophecy Intl. Foursquare Gospel, Canada Intl. Pentecostal Holiness Church Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada Pentecostal Church of God
  • Oneness Pentecostal
  • United Pentecostal Church Intl.

  • Presbyterian ; Reformed
  • Canadian and American Reformed Churches Christian Reformed Church in North America L'Église réformée du Québec Presbyterian Church in Canada Presbyterian Church in America Reformed Church in America United Church of Canada

  • Other
  • Messianic Jewish Alliance of America Plymouth Brethren Vineyard Canada


  • United Kingdom
  • UK Christian Denominations   v • d •  e 
  • UK Interchurch
  • Affinity (formerly British Evangelical Council)  • site Churches Together in Britain ; Ireland  • site Evangelical Alliance, UK • site locate Fellowship of Independent Evangelical Churches  • site Churches Together in England  • site Action of Churches Together, Scotland (ACTS)  • site Associating Evangelical Churches of Wales  • site Churches Together in Wales  • site Evangelical Movement of Wales  • site

  • Anglican
  • Church of England  • site Free Church of England • site Church of Ireland  • site Scottish Episcopal Church  • site Church in Wales  • site

  • Baptists
  • Association of Baptist Churches in Ireland  • site Baptist Union of Great Britain  • site Baptist Union of Scotland  • site Baptist Union of Wales  • site Grace Baptist Assembly  • site Old Baptist Union  • site

  • Catholic
  • Roman Catholicism
  • England ; Wales • site Ireland • site Scotland • site
  • Old Catholicism
  • British Old Catholic Church  • site Old Catholic Church in Europe  • site Old Catholic Mariavite Church  • site Old Catholic Church of Great Britain  • site Traditional Catholic Orthodox Church  • site United Ecumenical Catholic Church  • site

  • Holiness ; Pietist
  • Christian Outreach Centre  • site Church of the Nazarene • nth , sth British Moravian Church • site Salvation Army  • site Seventh-day Adventist Church  • site Wesleyan Holiness Church • site

  • Lutheran
  • Evangelical Lutheran Church of England  • site Lutheran Church in Great Britain  • site

  • Methodist ; Wesleyan
  • Free Methodist of the UK • site Methodist Church in Ireland  • site Methodist Church of Great Britain  • site Wesleyan Reform Union  • site

  • New Church Movement
  • Vineyard Churches UK  • site Ichthus Christian Fellowship • site Newfrontiers • site Pioneer Church • site

  • Orthodox
  • Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of G.B. • site Russian Orthodox Diocese, G.B. ; Ire. • site Russian Tradition Vicariate, G.B. ; Ire.  • site
  • Non-Chalcedonic Orthodox
  • British Orthodox Church  • site Celtic Orthodox Church  • site

  • Pentecostal
  • Assemblies of God  • G.Bri Ire Church of God in Christ • site Elim Pentecostal Church • site Foursquare Gospel Church  • site Worldwide Church of God • site

  • Presbyterian ; Reformed
  • Asso. Presbyterian Churches, Scotland • site Church of Scotland • site Congregational Federation • site Evangelical Presbyterian Church  • site Free Church of Scotland  • site Free Church of Scotland (Continuing)  • site Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland  • site Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster  • site Non-subscribing Presbyterian, Ireland  • site Presbyterian Church in Ireland  • site Presbyterian Church of Wales  • site Reformed Presbyterian Church  • N.Ire, Scot United Free Church of Scotland  • site United Reformed Church • site

  • Other
  • Brethren in Christ • site Churches of Christ • site Fellowship of Ind. Evangelical Churches • site Latter-day Saints • site Quakers/ Britain Yearly Meeting • site Quakers/ Ireland Yearly Meeting • site


  • United States
  • United States Christian bodies   v •  d •  e 
  • United States Interchurch
  • National Association of Evangelicals National Council of Churches Churches Uniting in Christ S. Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America North Am. Presbyterian ; Reformed Council

  • Anabaptist ; Friends
  • Church of the Brethren Friends United Meeting Mennonite Church USA Old Order Amish Mennonite Church

  • Baptist ; Stone-Campbell
  • Baptist
  • Alliance of Baptists American Baptist Association American Baptist Churches Baptist Bible Fellowship International Baptist General Conference Baptist Missionary Association of America Conservative Baptist Association of America General Association of Regular Baptist Churches National Association of Free Will Baptists National Primitive Baptist Convention North American Baptist Conference Southern Baptist Convention
  • African-American Baptist
  • National Baptist Convention of America National Baptist Convention, USA National Missionary Baptist Convention of America Progressive National Baptist Convention
  • Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement
  • Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Christian Churches and Churches of Christ Churches of Christ International Churches of Christ

  • Catholic ; Anglican
  • Episcopal Church Old Roman Catholic Church Polish National Catholic Church Roman Catholic Church

  • Holiness ; Pietist
  • Christian and Missionary Alliance Church of God (Anderson) Evangelical Covenant Church Evangelical Free Church of America Church of the Nazarene Salvation Army Seventh-day Adventist Church Wesleyan Church

  • Lutheran
  • Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod

  • Methodist
  • African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Christian Methodist Episcopal Church Free Methodist Church United Methodist Church

  • Orthodox
  • Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America Orthodox Church in America Serbian Orthodox Church
  • Non-Chalcedonic
  • Armenian Apostolic of Am. Armenian Apostolic Diocese of Am. Coptic Orthodox Church

  • Pentecostal
  • Assemblies of God Church of God (Cleveland, TN) Church of God in Christ Church of God of Prophecy Full Gospel Fellowship Intl. Church of the Foursquare Gospel Intl. Pentecostal Holiness Church Pentecostal Church of God
  • Oneness Pentecostal
  • Pentecostal Assemblies of the World United Pentecostal Church Intl.

  • Presbyterian ; Reformed
  • Christian Reformed Church in North America Conservative Congregational Christian Conference Cumberland Presbyterian Church Evangelical Presbyterian Church Korean Presbyterian Church in America International Council of Community Churches National Asso. of Congregational Christian Churches Presbyterian Church (USA) Presbyterian Church in America Reformed Church in America United Church of Christ

  • Other
  • Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Community of Christ Grace Gospel Fellowship Independent Fundamental Churches of America Messianic Jewish Alliance of America Plymouth Brethren Vineyard USA See also: Non-denominational Christianity


  • International Associations
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  • All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC)  • site Association of Evangelicals of Africa (AEA)  • site All Africa Baptist Fellowship  • site Africa Lutheran Communion  • site

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  • Christian Conference of Asia (CCA)  • site Evangelical Fellowship of Asia  • site Asia Pacific Baptist Federation  • site Asia Lutheran Communion  • site

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  • Middle East Council of Churches (MECC)  • site

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  • Latin American Council of Churches (CLAI)  • site Latin American Evangelical Fellowship (FIDE)  • site Union of Baptists in Latin America  • site

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  • A simplified chart of historical developments of major groups within Christianity.
  • Catholic Church Main article: Catholic Church The Catholic Church comprises those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance. [169] [170] Like the Eastern Orthodox, the Roman Catholic Church through Apostolic succession traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ. [171] [172] Catholics maintain that the " one, holy, catholic and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Roman Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities [173] [174] and works towards reconciliation among all Christians. [173] The Catholic faith is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. [175] [176] The 2,782 sees [177] are grouped into 23 particular rites, the largest being the Latin Rite, each with distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering the sacraments. [178] With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest church representing over half of all Christians and one sixth of the world's population. [179] [180] [181] Various smaller communities, such as the Old Catholic, Heenum Catholic and Independent Catholic Churches, include the word Catholic in their title, and share much in common with Roman Catholicism but are no longer in communion with the See of Rome. The Old Catholic Church is in communion with the Anglican Communion. [182] [183] Orthodox churches Main articles: Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy See also: List of Orthodox Churches Eastern Orthodoxy comprises those churches in communion with the Patriarchal Sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. [184] Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through Apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of the individual, mostly national churches is emphasized. A number of conflicts with Western Christianity over questions of doctrine and authority culminated in the Great Schism. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with over 200 million adherents. [179] The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called Old Oriental Churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils— Nicaea, Constantinople and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology. The Oriental Orthodox communion comprises six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India) and Armenian Apostolic churches. [185] These six churches, while being in communion with each other are completely independent hierarchically. [186] These churches are generally not in communion with Eastern Orthodox Churches with whom they are in dialogue for a return to unity. [187] Protestantism

  • Historical chart of the main Protestant branches
  • Main article: Protestantism See also: History of Protestantism In the 16th century, Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin inaugurated what has come to be called Protestantism. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are broadly referred to as the Reformed Tradition. [188] Most Protestant traditions branch out from the Reformed tradition in some way. In addition to the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation, there is Anglicanism after the English Reformation. The Anabaptist tradition was largely ostracized by the other Protestant parties at the time, but has achieved a measure of affirmation in more recent history. Some but not most Baptists prefer not to be called Protestants, claiming a direct ancestral line going back to the apostles in the first century. [189] The oldest Protestant groups separated from the Catholic Church in the 16th century Protestant Reformation, followed in many cases by further divisions. [188] For example, the Methodist Church grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical and revival movement in the Anglican Church. [190] [191] Several Pentecostal and non-denominational Churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of the Methodist Church. [191] [192] Because Methodists, Pentecostals, and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior", [193] which comes from John Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth, [194] they often refer to themselves as being born-again. [195] [196] Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, partly because of the difficulty in determining which denominations should be placed in these categories, but it seems clear that Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism in number of followers (although the Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination). [179] A special grouping are the Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organised in the Anglican Communion.. Some Anglican churches consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic. [197] Some Anglicans consider their church a branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church" alongside of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a concept rejected by the Roman Catholic Church and some Eastern Orthodox. [198] [199] Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenants identify themselves simply as "Christians" or " born-again Christians. They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and/or creedalism of other Christian communities [200] by calling themselves " non-denominational." Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. [201] Other The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the U.S. during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches. [202] A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy. [203] [204] Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early-19th century camp meetings in the Midwest and Upstate New York. American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement (with 7 million members), [205] and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, Churches of Christ, and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest denomination of the Latter Day Saint movement with over 13 million members. [206] [207] [208] [209] While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly. Ecumenism Main article: Ecumenism Most churches have long expressed ideals of being reconciled with each other, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways. [210] One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia which includes Roman Catholics. [210] The other way was institutional union with new United and uniting churches. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada, [211] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches. [212] Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054; [213] the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; [214] and the Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches signing The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the Methodist church adopted the declaration. [215] See also
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  • Endnotes
  • ^ Christianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, amongst other sources, the Catholic Encyclopedia (article " Monotheism"); William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul, pp. 496–99; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". p. 111f. ^ BBC, BBC—Religion ; Ethics—566, Christianity ^ Briggs, Charles A. The fundamental Christian faith: the origin, history and interpretation of the Apostles' and Nicene creeds. C. Scribner's sons, 1913. Online: http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?books.google.com/books?id=VKMPAAAAIAAJ ^ a b The term "Christian" ( Greek Χριστιανός) was first used in reference to Jesus' disciples in the city of Antioch[ Acts 11:26] about 44 AD, meaning "followers of Christ". The name was given by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch, probably in derision, to the disciples of Jesus. In the New Testament the names by which the disciples were known among themselves were "brethren", "the faithful", "elect", "saints", "believers". The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" (Greek Χριστιανισμός) was by Ignatius of Antioch, around 100 AD. See Elwell/Comfort. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, pp. 266, 828 ^ Defined to avoid the ambiguous term "orthodox" ^ Sheed, Frank. "Theology and Sanity." (Ignatius Press: San Francisco, 1993), pp. 276. ^ a b McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction, pp. 4-6. ^ a b Robinson, Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals, p. 229. ^ a b Esler. The Early Christian World. p. 157f. ^ J.Z.Smith, p. 276. ^ Anidjar, p. 3. ^ Fowler, World Religions: An Introduction for Students, p. 131. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, pp. 301-03. ^ "between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed" (McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction, page xvl.) ^ "1.5 thousand million Christians" (Hinnells, The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion, p. 441.) ^ " Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html. Retrieved 2009-05-05.  ^ Hinnells, The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion, p. 441. ^ [see Christianity#Demographics for information and references] ^ Olson, The Mosaic of Christian Belief. ^ Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition. ^ Catholics United for the Faith, "We Believe in One God" ^ Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism".[ clarification needed] ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, " Council of Ephesus". ^ Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon. ^ British Orthodox Church, The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon ^ Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, " Athanasian Creed". ^ a b " Our Common Heritage as Christians". The United Methodist Church. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ Avis, Paul (2002) The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, SPCK, London, ISBN 0-281-05246-8 paperback ^ White, The History of the Church. ^ Cummins, Duane D. (1991). A handbook for Today's Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) Revised Edition. St Louis, MO: Chalice Press. ISBN 0-8272-1425-1.  ^ a b Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4 ^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible, pp. 513, 649. ^ Acts 2:24, 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30-31, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor. 15:15, 6:14, 2 Cor. 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess. 11:10, Heb. 13:20, 1 Pet. 1:3, 1:21 ^ " Nicene Creed—Wikisource". En.wikisource.org. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_Creed. Retrieved 2009-05-05.  ^ Hanegraaff. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. ^ " The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian". Australian Catholic University National. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-16.  ^ " Why is the resurrection of Jesus Christ important?". Got Questions Ministries. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?gotquestions.org/resurrection-Christ-important.html. Retrieved 2007-05-16.  ^  John, 5:24, 6:39–40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25–26, and 17:3 ^ This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord. ^ Fuller, The Foundations of New Testament Christology, p. 11. ^ A Jesus Seminar conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary." ^ Funk. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. ^ Lorenzen. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today, p. 13. ^ Ball/Johnsson (ed.). The Essential Jesus. ^ a b Eisenbaum, Pamela (Winter 2004). " A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans". Journal of Biblical Literature 123 (4): 671-702. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-03.  ^ Wright, N.T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? (Oxford, 1997), p. 121. ^ CCC 846; Vatican II, Lumen Gentium 14 ^ See quotations from Council of Trent on Justification at http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?justforcatholics.org/a14.htm ^ Westminster Confession, Chapter X; Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Grace and Justification ^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 87-90. ^ Alexander. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. p. 514f. ^ McGrath. Historical Theology. p. 61. ^ Metzger/Coogan. Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 782. ^ Kelly. The Athanasian Creed. ^ Oxford, "Encyclopedia Of Christianity, pg1207 ^ Fowler. World Religions: An Introduction for Students. p. 58. ^ Theophilus of Antioch Apologia ad Autolycum II 15 ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. p. 50. ^ Tertullian De Pudicitia chapter 21 ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 53. ^ Moltman, Jurgen. The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God. Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. ISBN 080062825X ^ Harnack, History of Dogma. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture (§105-108) ^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God ^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text ^ " PC(USA)—Presbyterian 101—What is The Bible?". Pcusa.org. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?pcusa.org/101/101-bible.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.  ^ Bruce, The Canon of Scripture; Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Canon of Scripture", § 120 ^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 39. ^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 69-78. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115-118. ^ Thomas Aquinas, "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses" ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116 ^ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19). ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85. ^ Mathison. The Shape of Sola Scriptura.[ clarification needed] ^ a b Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture. ^ John Calvin, Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles 2 Peter 3:14-18 ^ Article about Helvetic confessions ^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions ^ Sproul. Knowing Scripture, pp. 45-61; Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6). ^ Elwell, Walter A. (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House. ISBN 0801034132.  ^ Johnson, Elliott (1990). Expository hermeneutics : an introduction. Grand Rapids Mich.: Academie Books. ISBN 9780310341604.  ^ Terry, Milton (1974). Biblical hermeneutics : a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House.  p. 205 ^ Elwell, Walter A. (1984). Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House. ISBN 0801034132.  p. 565 ^ e.g., in his commentary on Matthew 1 (§III.3) Matthew Henry interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and Jewish Christians. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, " Particular Judgment". ^ Ott, Grundriß der Dogmatik, p. 566. ^ David Moser, What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead. ^ Ken Collins, What Happens to Me When I Die?. ^ Audience of 4 August 1999 ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, " The Communion of Saints". ^ Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99 ^ Calvin, John. " Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25". http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?reformed.org. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html. Retrieved 2008-01-01.  ^ "The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, "the dead are conscious of nothing."What is God's Purpose for the Earth?" Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watchtower, July 15, 2002. ^ a b Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII ^ a b c Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. p. 1435f. ^ Hickman. Handbook of the Christian Year. ^ " ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library". Ccel.org. 2005-06-01. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-05.  ^ Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ( Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX). ^ "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3) ^ a b Dilasser. The Symbols of the Church. ^ a b Catholic Encyclopedia, " Symbolism of the Fish". ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, " Veneration of Images. ^ Theodosian Code XVI.i.2, in: Bettenson. Documents of the Christian Church. p. 31. ^ Orlandis, A Short History of the Catholic Church (1993), preface. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 37f. ^ a b c d Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 238–42. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 248–50. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 244–47. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, p. 260. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 278–81. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 305, 312, 314f.. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 303–07, 310f., 384–86. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 305, 310f., 316f. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 321–23, 365f. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 292–300. ^ Riley-Smith. The Oxford History of the Crusades. ^ " The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom". Orthodox Information Centre. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx. Retrieved 2007-05-26.  ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 91 ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 300, 304–05. ^ Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity, pp. 310, 383, 385, 391. ^ Simon. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. p. 7. ^ Simon. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. pp. 39, 55–61. ^ Schama. A History of Britain. pp. 306–10. ^ Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church, pp. 242–44. ^ Simon. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. pp. 109–120. ^ A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689. ^ Mortimer Chambers, The Western Experience (vol. 2) chapter 21. ^ a b Adherents.com – Number of Christians in the world ^ " Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ Werner Ustorf. "A missiological postscript", in McLeod and Ustorf (eds), The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750-2000, ( Cambridge University Press, 2003) pp. 219–20. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica table of religions, by region. Retrieved November 2007. ^ American Religious Identification Survey 2008 ^ New UK opinion poll shows continuing collapse of 'Christendom' ^ Barrett/Kurian.World Christian Encyclopedia, p. 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany). ^ BBC NEWS—Guide: Christians in the Middle East ^ Is Christianity dying in the birthplace of Jesus? ^ Number of Christians among young Koreans decreases by 5% per year ^ " Christianity fading in Taiwan | American Buddhist Net". Americanbuddhist.net. 2007-11-10. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?americanbuddhist.net/christianity-fading-taiwan. Retrieved 2009-05-05.  ^ A Gambling-Fueled Boom Adds to a Church’s Bane ^ Putnam, Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society, p. 408. ^ McGrath, Christianity: An Introduction, p. xvi. ^ Peter Marber, Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles, p. 99. ^ " Gov. Pataki Honors 1700th Anniversary of Armenia's Adoption of Christianity as a state religion". Aremnian National Committe of America. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?anca.org/press_releases/press_releases.php?prid=82. Retrieved 2009-04-11.  ^ " Bolivia". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/72106/Bolivia. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Costa Rica". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139528/Costa-Rica. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Denmark". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157748/Denmark. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ a b " El Salvador". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181798/El-Salvador. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Church and State in Britain: The Church of privilege". Centre for Citizenship. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Official Religions of Finland". Finish Tourist Board. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?visitfinland.com/w5/index.nsf/(Pages)/Religion. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " State and Church in Finland". Euresis. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?euresisnet.eu/Pages/ReligionAndState/FINLAND.aspx. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " McCain Praises Georgia For Adopting Christianity As Official State Religion". BeliefNet. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?blog.beliefnet.com/stevenwaldman/2008/08/mccain-praises-georgia-for-ado.html. Retrieved 2009-04-11.  ^ " Iceland". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Liechtenstein". U.S. Department of State. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24418.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Malta". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360532/Malta. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Monaco". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388747/Monaco. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Norway". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/420178/Norway. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Church of Scotland". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/529484/Church-of-Scotland. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Switzerland". U.S. Department of State. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24436.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Vatican". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623972/Vatican-City. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Cyprus". U.S. Department of State. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/27433.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-11.  ^ " Divisions of Christianity". North Virginia College. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/Rel232/resource/Xiandivision.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " The LDS Restorationist movement, including Mormon denominations". Religious Tolerance. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " Nicene Creed". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?britannica.com/eb/article-9055702. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ Sydney E. Ahlstrom ([ clarification needed], p. 381.) characterized denominationalism in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Roman Catholic church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." For specific citations, on the Roman Catholic Church see the Catechism of the Catholic Church §816; other examples: Donald Nash, Why the Churches of Christ are not a Denomination; Wendell Winkler, Christ's Church is not a Denomination; and David E. Pratt, What does God think about many Christian denominations? ^ Second Vatican Council, Lumen Gentium. ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners, p. 1. ^ Hitchcock, Geography of Religion, p. 281. ^ Norman, The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History, p. 11, 14. ^ a b Second Vatican Council, Lumen Gentium, chapter 2, paragraph 15. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraph 865. ^ Marthaler, Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues (1994), preface. ^ John Paul II, Pope (1997). " Laetamur Magnopere". Vatican. Archived from the original on 2008-02-11. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?web.archive.org/web/20080211121910/http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-09.  ^ Annuario Pontificio (2007), p. 1172. ^ Barry, One Faith, One Lord (2001), p. 71 ^ a b c Adherents.com, Religions by Adherents ^ Zenit.org, " Number of Catholics and Priests Rises", 12 February 2007. ^ Central Intelligence Agency, CIA World Factbook (2007). ^ According to the Bonn Accord of 1931, cited at Old Catholic Church of the Beatitudes. ^ Council of Anglican Episcopal Churches in Germany. ^ Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, p. 1199. ^ Oriental Orthodox Churches ^ An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches ^ Syrian Orthodox Resources -- Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration ^ a b McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. pp. 251–59. ^ Dr. James Milton Carroll. The Trail of Blood. The School of Biblical ; Theological Studies (2004).  ^ " About The Methodist Church". Methodist Central Hall Westminster. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ a b " American Holiness Movement". Finding Your Way, Inc. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?mb-soft.com/believe/text/holiness.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " Christianity: Pentecostal Churches". Finding Your Way, Inc.. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?findingyourwayinc.org/christianity.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " Statement of Belief". Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45)". The United Methodist Church GBGM. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace". The United Methodist Church GBGM. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " Total Experience of the Spirit". Warren Wilson College. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ Sykes/Booty/Knight. The Study of Anglicanism, p. 219. ^ Gregory Hallam, Orthodoxy and Ecumenism. ^ Gregory Mathewes-Green, " Whither the Branch Theory?", Anglican Orthodox Pilgrim Vol. 2, No. 4. ^ Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to describe "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.) ^ " Classification of Protestant Denominations". Pew Forum on Religion ; Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-27.  ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 91f. ^ " The Restorationist Movements". Religious Tolerance. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ " What is Restorationism?". Got Questions Ministries. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?gotquestions.org/restorationism.html. Retrieved 2007-12-31.  ^ JW-Media.org Membership 2005 ^ Statistical Report 2008 ^ "LDS Church says membership now 13 million worldwide", Salt Lake Tribune, June 25, 2007. ^ Press Release, LDS Church, "One Million Missionaries, Thirteen Million Members", June 25, 2007. ^ The church counts all members who were ever baptized, who have neither been excommunicated nor asked to have their names removed from church records. Independent surveys estimate that about 50% of people on LDS Church rolls do not identify with the religion. See John Dart, Counting Mormons: study says LDS numbers inflated, Christian Century, August 21, 2007. ^ a b McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, pp. 581–84. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. p. 413f. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 498. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 373. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 583. ^ Methodist Statement
  • References
  • General references
  • American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin Company (2006). Catechism of the Catholic Church.[ clarification needed] Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.[ clarification needed] Encyclopedia of Religion.[ clarification needed] New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy.[ clarification needed] editors, Sinclair B. Ferguson, David F. Wright ; consulting editor, J.I. Packer. (1988). Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David. eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press. ISBN 0851106366.  Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom et al. (ed.). World Christian Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press (2001).
  • Monographies and articles
  • Ahlstrom, Sydney E.[ clarification needed] Albright, William F. From the Stone Age to Christianity.[ clarification needed] Alexander, T. Desmond. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology.[ clarification needed] Anidjar, 2001.[ clarification needed] Bahnsen, Greg. A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6). Martin Luther, Augustinian.[ clarification needed] Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294. Barry, John F. One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. William H. Sadlier (2001). ISBN 0-8215-2207-8 Bettenson, Henry (ed.). Documents of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1943). Bokenkotter, Thomas. A Concise History of the Catholic Church . Doubleday (2004). ISBN 0385505841 Bruce, F.F. The Canon of Scripture.[ clarification needed] Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). ISBN 0-394-31734-3. Coffey, John. Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558-1689. Pearson Education (2000). Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1997). ISBN 019211655X.[ clarification needed] Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. ISBN 0-567-08654-2.[ clarification needed] Dilasser, Maurice. The Symbols of the Church. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). ISBN 0-8146-2538-X Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes. Yale University Press (1997). ISBN 0-3000-7332-1 Elwell, Walter A.; Comfort, Philip Wesley. Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers (2001). ISBN 0842370897. Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). Farrar, F.W. Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?". Macmillan, London/New York (1904). Foutz, Scott. Martin Luther and Scripture Martin Luther and Scripture.[ clarification needed] Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions: An Introduction for Students, Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486. Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X. Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church, Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) ISBN=157075375x Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789. Glenny, W. Edward. Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion. Gonzalez, Justo L. The Story of Christianity: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation, Harper Collins Publishers, New York (1984). Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000). ISBN 0849916437. Harnack, Adolf von. History of Dogma (1894).[ clarification needed] Hickman, Hoyt L. et al. Handbook of the Christian Year. Abingdon Press (1986). ISBN 0-687-16575-X Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion (2005).[ clarification needed] Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. Geography of Religion. National Geographic Society (2004) ISBN 0-7922-7313-3 Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines.[ clarification needed] Kelly, J.N.D. The Athanasian Creed. Harper ; Row, New York (1964). Kirsch, Jonathan. God Against the Gods.[ clarification needed] Kreeft, Peter. Catholic Christianity. Ignatius Press (2001) ISBN 0-89870-798-6 Letham, Robert. The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship. P ; R Publishing (2005). ISBN 0875520006. Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Smyth ; Helwys (2003). ISBN 1573123994. McLaughlin, R. Emmet, Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540, New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). ISBN 0-300-03367-2. MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History. Viking Adult (2004). MacCulloch, Diarmaid, A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. London, Allen Lane. 2009. ISBN 9780713998696 Marber, Peter. Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles. FT Press (2003). ISBN 0130654809 Marthaler, Berard. Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues. Paulist Press (1994). ISBN 0809134950 Mathison, Keith. The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001).[ clarification needed] McClintock, John, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Harper ;Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889) McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1405108991. McGrath, Alister E. Historical Theology.[ clarification needed] McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press (1990). ISBN 0198229283. Meconi, David Vincent. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity", in: Journal of Early Christian Studies.[ clarification needed] Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455. Norman, Edward. The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California (2007) ISBN 978-0-520-25251-6 Olson, Roger E., The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 9780830826957. Orlandis, Jose, A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers (1993) ISBN 1851821252 Ott, Ludwig. Grundriß der Dogmatik. Herder, Freiburg (1965).[
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  • 4Vote! Sugar-coating Christianity in Fiction A Christian Worldview of Fiction ( Free subscription) | 5 hours ago I listened to part of a writing instruction tape recorded years ago at a now-defunct writing conference. The author holding the seminar said first that writing, particularly for children, should be entertaining. Then, the writing should sugar-coat the message. The reason behind this approach seemed to be based on the assertion that readers don’t want stories [...] 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share 5Vote! Why Does Pat Robertson Insist on Embarassing Christianity? Dr Jim West ( Free subscription) | 13 hours ago Pat (and you other whack jobs), please, for the sake of the Church Universal and common sense, be quiet. When you talk about beheading people and then pouring oil down their throats… well, you just sound stupid-er than usual. Posted in people, Theology 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Pat Robertson, Televangelism, US

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When bringing Christianity into the jury box, bring all of it Grits for Breakfast ( Free subscription) | yesterday I've ignored until now a Texas case receiving international notoriety in which jurors consulted some of the more punitive verses in the Christian Bible during deliberations in a death penalty case. It's been getting wide play elsewhere because it hits on two culture-war touchstones - the death penalty and church-state separation - that this writer finds boring, dull and repetitive. However, this morning... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Texas, US 3Vote! Christianity: After Communism, After Capitalism David Lindsay ( Free subscription) | yesterday Adrian Pabst writes: The Velvet Revolutions of 1989 are commonly associated with the uprising of secular liberal dissents against atheist Communist regimes. 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One of the many people who commented on that post was an anonymous commenter who wrote: Ok, my parents found out i was gay by myspace (which i regret for putting my sexual orientation)... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : PlayStation, PlayStation 3, Video Games To the anonymous gay teen who asked for help in a Boing Boing comment thread - Click World News 4Vote! Belarus: Gomel site now live Tracing the Tribe ( Free subscription) | 1 hour ago The Jewish community of Gomel, Belarus, now has a home on the Internet. Paul Zoglin has created a great site with city and family photos, historical and contemporary maps, stories, links and much more. At left, see the Great Synagogue (built mid-19th-century). See the Gomel site here . Tracing the Tribe found it relevant as our Talalay family has a connection to the town, when Iosif Talalay (of Mogilev,... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Genealogy 3Vote! How Sweden conquered Finland in the Middle Ages News for Medievalists ( Free subscription) | 4 hours ago A new article is shedding light on how the Kingdom of Sweden was able to conquer and take control the lands of southern Finland between the 13th and 15th centuries. In his article, "Sweden's Conquest of Finland: A Clash of Cultures," Philip Line examines how the kingdom of Sweden was able to impose their rule on Finland and convert its inhabitants to Christianity. The article appears in the... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share 3Vote! I Believe . . . South Carolina Just Got Schooled On the First Amendment The Legal Satyricon ( Free subscription) | 6 hours ago By: Zac Papantoniou “Whatever else the Establishment Clause may mean (and we have held it to mean no official preference even for religion over nonreligion), . . . it certainly means at the very least that government may not demonstrate a preference for one particular sect or creed (including a preference for Christianity over other religions). [...] 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Law, South Carolina, US 3Vote! BLACKOUT ON RIFQA BARY Apparently, under cover... LATICONOMICS ( Free subscription) | 7 hours ago BLACKOUT ON RIFQA BARY Apparently, under cover of darkness there have been a number of hearings on Rifqa Bary. Yes, without public knowledge, with NO MEDIA, Ohio has been adjudicating on Rifqa. The public hearing on the 16th was canceled, but they have been conducting hearings. Her crime? She escaped Islam and converted to Christianity (all Atlas coverage here: Rifqa Bary: Teenage Apostate in America).... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Florida, Islam, Ohio, US 10Vote! The WWJD Hate Crime Inciters are Getting Some Support for their DC "Protest" Pam's House Blend ( Free subscription) | 8 hours ago Updated : Fundie Scarborough says Anti- Gay Activists Are Just Like MLK (seriously) after the jump. I posted the rather unbelievable story last week that got a lot of you talking about Pastor Gary Cass of the Christian Anti-Defamation Commission losing his mind over the passage of the Matthew Shepard ; James Byrd Hate Crimes Prevention Act . Cass and his group of hate-mongers had decided to head... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Hate Crime, James Dobson, LGBT, US The 3 latest articles published by users on Christianity : 12Vote! Angel and Devil ---iphone 3G/ iphone 3GS silicon case for Hallowmas fatyourwallet | 10/14/2009 In Christianity, a day commemorating all the saints of the church, known and unknown. It is celebrated on November 1 in the Western churches . Hallowmas is coming ! how to celebrate ? what gift can we prepare for it ? we could recommend some kinds of Holiday Crafts with good quality and competitive price. Angel and Devil ---iphone 3G/ iphone 3GS silicon case for Hallowmas. The gift is so cute ,so lovely 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share 3Vote! Mercy Streets trade0590 | 10/14/2009 I have never been religious, but here I am with Mercy Streets , a film produced by ChristianCinema.com with themes of redemption and rebirth. Yet Christianity doesn't play much of a role in the qualities of the film. Even with little to no understanding of the Bible and despite a hokey plot riddled with clichés, the first 60 minutes of Mercy Streets are surprisingly good, especially for a film that... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Eric Roberts, Florida, US 3Vote! Mercy Streets trade0597 | 10/14/2009 I have never been religious, but here I am with Mercy Streets , a film produced by ChristianCinema.com with themes of redemption and rebirth. Yet Christianity doesn't play much of a role in the qualities of the film. Even with little to no understanding of the Bible and despite a hokey plot riddled with clichés, the first 60 minutes of Mercy Streets are surprisingly good, especially for a film that... 0 add comment send to a friend facebook twitter share Explore : Eric Roberts, Florida, US
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  • Home Page Christianity Articles

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  • Free Christian Ecard and Christian Ecards ... to locate a free Christian ecard company is to use a search engine. Using common keywords that may be within the domain of a Christian ecard company can ensure success in finding the website desired. Keywords for finding a free Christian ... Read By: Christian | 13/09/2005 | Free

  • Christian Singles and Meet Christian Singles ... Christian singles, you can look at church, school, or even on the Internet. So many groups cater to Christian singles that you will not have to look that hard at all. Most of the time, they are right in front of your face and waiting to be ... Read By: Christian | 09/09/2005 | Advice

  • Penpal and Christian Penpal ... . Having a penpal allows you to create a relationship that can evolve as slowly or quickly as you want it to. A penpal, or Christian penpal of the opposite gender can sometimes evolve into a relationship that leads to dating, or that leads ... Read By: Christian | 13/09/2005 | Free

  • Strengthening Christian Faith ... prime duty to spread god’s sayings in all over the world. On the other hand, it does not matter whether we are Christian or from other religion. As a human being, we must know the ultimate gist of all religions. In the revolutionary era of ... Read By: New Zealand Christian Foundation | 24/02/2009 | Religion

  • Christian Dating Match Advise ... the site and create your profile. Your profile let others learn more about you. Once your profile has been made, you can search for other Christians that you want to meet. Who knows, you can just find the love of your life in just a couple ... Read By: Christian Datings | 21/07/2009 | Dating

  • Need Easy Christian Dating Personals ... the majority of their profiles are not active. 2. 3. Stay clear off Websites that cant guarantee your privacy. There are some Christian Dating Websites that dont give you complete control over your name, email, etc . This may help you stay ... Read By: Christian Date | 20/07/2009 | Dating

  • Christianity in the News 24-7 ChristianNews.com is a complete and recent source of Christian-related stories in America and around the planet. 24-7 ChristianNews.com reaches the Christian culture thru the Net. We offer Christian stories from a large range of areas ... Read By: christian news | 20/06/2009 | Christianity

  • Chinese Christian ... society, citizen’s lives, environmental protection, and various others, and its influence reaches to all nations. Yet, how should a Christian view the last 30 years since the reform? To answer this question, China Ministries International ... Read By: chinese christian | 14/10/2009 | Religion


  • Christian Credit Counselors Budgeting and Your Life
  • 10 Reasons Budgeting is Good for You
  • If you’ve never been on a budget in your life, it’s time to start. Everyone can benefit from more structure regarding their finances, especially if there isn’t very ... Read By: Christian Credit Counselors | 24/09/2007 | Debt Consolidation

  • Christian Single Women & Men at Free Christian Dating Websites ... to meet their soul mate at these dating services. You should take an action now. Do not wait any longer. Join these free Christian dating services to find that special soul mate of your dream. In fact, seeking Christian online singles at ... Read By: Tammy Wong | 14/12/2008 | Relationships

  • Will the Real Christian Please Stand Up ... don't need to do it. We would Want to. We cant help it. We are in love with our God who lives inside us. Christianity is not a religion but a relationship and love.
  • " For without Me you can do Nothing" - John 15:5 (NKJV) Only JESUS ... Read By: Evangelist Victor King | 25/05/2008 | Self Publishing


  • Christian Ebooks at Christian Web Sites - Gods Word Continues to Speak ... web sites at which you may have landed on this day, God sees fit to place you here, to find the one, most useful gem out of many, that Christian web sites may offer you.
  • Yet, where lays your primary, greatest, and most obvious or ... Read By: Kenneth G. Dockins | 10/04/2008 | Marriage

  • Seeking Christian Date for Free at Christian Dating Services ... and marriages are generated from these online Christian personals services. Some are free and some are paid dating services. Free Christian date sites provide members the service without monthly membership. This type of service allows on ... Read By: Emmy Wooh | 25/09/2008 | Dating


  • Christian Ebooks at Christian Web Sites - God's Word Continues to Speak ... web sites at which you may have landed on this day, God sees fit to place you here, to find the one, most useful gem out of many, that Christian web sites may offer you.
  • Yet, where lays your primary, greatest, and most obvious or ... Read By: Kenneth Gene Dockins | 02/04/2008 | Religion

  • Orissa Clash and Christian Missionaries ... Hindus was incorporated in the Constitution. The missionary apparatus multiplied fast and became pervasive. Christianity had never had it so good in the whole of its history in India. The only rift in the lute was the ‘Niyogi Committee ... Read By: Nithin Sridhar | 14/01/2008 | Religion

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  • Wedding Ring - History of the Wedding Ring Submitted by Richard Walker on 2009-11-11 (0 requests) in Relationships
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  • History of the Wedding RingSome historians believe that the ring is a symbol of put that prisoners were women in the Middle Ages. Others argue that the tradition of exchanging rings can be correlated with the prehistoric time when sharing personal items was a sign of good faith and friendship. ... Read more (394 words)
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  • Obama Whitewashes Islam Christianity and Judaism at Fort Hood Submitted by Karen Fish on 2009-11-11 (0 requests) in Religion
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  • Yesterday President Barack Hussein Obama spoke at the memorial service at Fort Hood allegedly brought about by the Fort's Jihadi Shrink Major Nidal Malik Hasan. The country is now gagging on the fact that both the President and the Jihadi shrink share the same name. It appears now that the ... Read more (924 words)
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  • The Logic and Belief Behind the Celebration of Halloween Today Submitted by Brian Jones on 2009-11-11 (0 requests) in Society
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  • Many societies the world over celebrate a special day for the dearly departed, and Halloween, or "Hallow Eve," is but one of these. Halloween is an expression of human nature's inclination to remember loved ones who had passed away. Days designated in memory of the honored and the esteemed stud ... Read more (479 words)
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  • The Story of Monograms Submitted by Murry Ferrell on 2009-11-11 (0 requests) in Health
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  • Monograms are part of history and culture. They have been used for centuries not only as an artful design adorning a favorite item, but as a religious symbol in Christianity. Though the modern monogram is only about 150 years old, it is still a rich and classic way to identify ... Read more (499 words)
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  • Scottsbluff Florist How To Send Holiday Flowers Submitted by Ava Rose on 2009-11-11 (0 requests) in Family
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  • A respectful gesture during religious festivals is to send a gift or a card. Sending flowers works incredibly well for any religion. There are various flowers associated with particular religions which have become a symbol of their beliefs and practices. For example, the flower of Christianity is generally seen as ... Read more (570 words)
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  • Christian Bracelets: Proclaiming Faith without Saying One Word Submitted by Chris Bradley on 2009-11-10 (0 requests) in Shopping
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  • Some of these bracelets have different engravings showcasing that the owner is a Christian and has faith in a higher being. Christian bracelets have many uses, one of which is that it opens up the doors of evangelism. Most people wearing their bracelets will find themselves approached by people and ... Read more (475 words)
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  • Artificial Christmas Wreaths: Getting Only the Best from Plastic Submitted by Chrias Bradley on 2009-11-10 (0 requests) in Home
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  • This might have been true decades ago, but today even artificial wreaths hardly look artificial at all. Walking into a store and checking out these “plastic wreaths,” will definitely give you a bit of a surprise since they look so real and far from plastic. Similar to artificial Christmas trees, ... Read more (507 words)
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  • Philippine Cultural, Historical and Tourists Spots Riches Submitted by Jose Maria Abada on 2009-11-09 (1 request) in Travel
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  • You can find many of the most visited tourist attractions in the world in the Philippine Island. The island is composed of 7,107 islands. This is one of the Southeast Asian countries with Manila as its capital city. The country, having about 92 million people is considered as the 12th ... Read more (609 words)
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  • So You Want To Learn Voodoo Spells Read THIS! Submitted by Kane Deng on 2009-11-09 (4 requests) in Religion
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  • Well, if you're reading this article, you want to learn something about Voodoo spells or even a few spells themselves. Well, before we get into any actual spells, you will probably want to read a few things first. Too many people have misconceptions about Voodoo which need to be cleared ... Read more (385 words)
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  • When Christ Was Born Submitted by Brian Jones on 2009-11-08 (6 requests) in Education
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  • What Homer, Euclid, Herodotus, Hippocrates, Antonio Vivaldi, Johann Gutenberg, and Jesus Christ have in common is that they are among the many historical figures documented with uncertain dates of birth. And it is rather ironic that Jesus Christ, probably the biggest name in the list and to whom historians have ... Read more (732 words)

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  • Are you Amazed by Jesus Christ? It is clear from the Four Gospels that wherever Jesus went, people were amazed! Whether they were rich or poor, young or old, sick or well, friends or enemies-people wer...

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  • Welcome to Choose It! We offer Parallel, where you can read five different versions of the Bible at one time to compare scriptures, complete Bible genealogy, keyword search and phrases, and recommende...

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  • This is a list of 24 points that show the metamorphosis of what is called christianity today is teaching falsehoods.

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  • Bible Prophecy makes sense of the events unfolding before our eyes! How does the year 2012 fit into all of this? Is there any way we can really k2009-11-13 (Fri) 06:52:11 What does the Bible have to say about 2012...

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  • The idea that one can be born again after one dies is not generally accepted and this made me cautious and shy about sharing this. In fact, knowing the things that are remembered from my l...

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  • Spiritual books lensography Gathering all my spiritual book reviews together :) Religion and spirituality fascinates me no end. I also love to read books - this lens combines both fascinations. I ho...

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  • UN envoy deeply concerned over Afghan charged for converting to ...... UN envoy deeply concerned over Afghan charged for converting to Christianity. 22 March 2006 – The top
  • United Nations envoy in Afghanistan ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=17890 ;Cr=Afghan ;Cr1= - 13k
  • [PDF] General Assembly... 4. Mr Mohammed Higazi is an Egyptian who wishes his official documentation to register the fact that he has
  • converted from Islam to Christianity. ... daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open ;DS=A/HRC/12/NGO/12 ;Lang=E
  • [PDF] General Assembly... the association of Islam with violence; the reductive association of Judaism with domination and power; and
  • the identification of Christianity with Western ... daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open ;DS=A/HRC/9/12 ;Lang=E
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  • [PDF] International covenant on civil and political rights... Christianity has been taught since the general mandatory education was introduced in 1739, but from
  • the time of the Dissenter or Non-conformist Act of 1845, a ... daccess-ods.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G04/448/09/PDF/G0444809.pdf?OpenElement
  • [PDF] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights... opinions. His books concerned abortion, conflicts between Judaism and Christianity, and the defence
  • of the Christian religion. Local ... daccess-ods.un.org/doc/UNDOC/DER/G00/456/69/PDF/G0045669.pdf?OpenElement
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  • The Holocaust and the United Nations Outreach Programme... Ancient Greece celebrated wisdom, Rome glorified authority, Christianity emphasized love even in its
  • fanaticism, Islam preached fanaticism even in its ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/holocaustremembrance/docs/paper6.shtml - 17k
  • [MS WORD] الجمعية العامة... Two principal anti-Semitic strands, dating from the time of medieval Christianity, are apparent in anti-Israeli
  • sentiment: dehumanization and demonization. ... daccess-ods.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G05/102/16/doc/G0510216.DOC?OpenElement
  • [MS WORD] 0510218... Two principal anti-Semitic strands, dating from the time of medieval Christianity, are apparent in anti-Israeli
  • sentiment: dehumanization and demonization. ... daccess-ods.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G05/102/17/doc/G0510217.DOC?OpenElement
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  • Holocaust Timeline... the Jewish faith. People who had converted to Christianity were still considered Jews if they had Jewish
  • grandparents. Thus the ... cyberschoolbus.un.org/discrim/race_b_ht_print.asp - 25k
  • [MS WORD] Optional pre-test:... the Jewish faith. People who had converted to Christianity were still considered Jews if they had Jewish
  • grandparents. Thus the ... cyberschoolbus.un.org/discrim/lesson3_race.doc
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  • [PDF] O$cialPage 1. United Nations FIFTEENTH SESSION O$cial Records (Opening meeting) Tuesday, 20 September 2960, at 3 pm EW YORK
  • Agenda item 1: CONTENTS Page ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/depts/dhl/landmark/pdf/a-pv864e.pdf
  • General Assembly Declares 18 July ‘Nelson Mandela International ...... continued hate directed towards some religious groups and he called for a peaceful co-existence, especially
  • among Islam, Judaism and Christianity, through the ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/ga10885.doc.htm - 48k
  • ADOPTING CONSENSUS RESOLUTION, GENERAL ASSEMBLY AFFIRMS MUTUAL ...... China was a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, which practiced Buddhism, Taoism, Islam and Christianity
  • in a harmonious way. ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/News/Press/docs/2008/ga10784.doc.htm - 101k
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  • Cyberschoolbus United Nations... the Jewish faith. People who had converted to Christianity were still considered Jews if they had Jewish
  • grandparents. Thus the ... cyberschoolbus.un.org/holocaust/timeline.asp - 15k
  • PRESS CONFERENCE BY HEAD OF ORGANIZATION OF ISLAMIC CONFERENCE... the beliefs of 1.5 billion people. Muslims accepted Christianity and Judaism, among other religions.
  • All over the world, in Istanbul ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/News/briefings/docs/2008/080922_OIC.doc.htm - 14k
  • [PDF] Eliminating Female genital mutilation... Jews and Muslims, none of the holy texts of any of these religions prescribes female genital mutilation and
  • the practice pre-dates both Christianity and Islam ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?uneca.org/daweca/Documents/fgm_statement_2008.pdf
  • [PDF] AE General Assembly Economic and Social Council... in Zion is nearly as old as Judaism itself, one of the oldest established religions in the world from which
  • two other great religions, Christianity and Islam ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/documents/ga/docs/56/a5671.pdf
  • Calendar - UNPFII - United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous ...Upcoming and previous events organized by the Secretariat of UNPFII or of special interest to indigenous peoples. http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/calendar.html - 101k
  • Fourth Session - UNPFII - United Nations Permanent Forum on ...... UN Lobby. Panel discusion on Challenging the Doctrine of Discovery: Christianity, the Papal Bulls and
  • Manifest Destiny. 5/17/2005 | 1:15pm - 2:45pm. ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/session_fourth.html - 78k
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  • UN Works — For People and the Planet | Women: Want to fight ...... After what I learned from Suzanne, I really feel a love for him.”. The Jewish writer reveals her old prejudices
  • about Christianity and Islam. ... http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?un.org/works/sub3.asp?lang=en ;id=46 - 20k



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  • Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present
  • The Catholic Historical Review; Oct 1, 1997; ; 700+ Words Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century...the latest products of the History of Christianity in China Project. Launched in 1985...postdoctoral project encouraged studies of Christianity that paid special attention to Chinese...


  • Christianity's contribution.(Dinesh D'Souza's book What's So Great About Christianity)(Critical essay)
  • Catholic Insight; Apr 1, 2008; ; 700+ Words ...the valuable contributions made by Christianity to society. Dinesh D'Souza, a research...authored What's So Great About Christianity (Regnery Publishing). One of the...about the role played for centuries by Christianity. [ILLUSTRATION OMITTED] A common...


  • Christianity and American Democracy.(Book review)
  • Church History; Sep 1, 2008; ; 700+ Words ...doi: 10.1017/S0009640708001546 Christianity and American Democracy. By Hugh Heclo...the particular nature of Protestant Christianity that helped to make American democracy...According to de Tocqueville, Protestant Christianity exercised a great deal of influence...


  • Christianity in South Africa: A Political, Social, and Cultural History.(Review)
  • Journal of Social History; Mar 22, 2000; ; 700+ Words Christianity in South Africa: A Political, Social...the constitutive force of culture. Christianity in South Africa, a sprawling work...Africa has b een the dramatic growth of Christianity. Fully grasping the many complexities...


  • Christianity: Essence, History, and Future.
  • Theological Studies; Jun 1, 1996; ; 700+ Words ...presentation of his proposals for Christianity's future. Accordingly, apart...brief account of the essence of Christianity, the present volume is largely devoted to an analysis of Christianity's history. K.'s basic thesis...


  • Christianity: Essence, History and Future.
  • National Catholic Reporter; Mar 29, 1996; ; 700+ Words ...present time and space and see how Christianity looks. From that distance one sees...differently the major divisions within Christianity -- Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Protestant...living figure, not a principle, holds Christianity together." Jesus Christ and the gospel...


  • Christianity.com to be Exclusive Webcast Provider for The Gospel Coalition 2009 National Conference.(Conference news)
  • PRWeb; Apr 14, 2009; 700+ Words ...14, 2009 (PRWeb.com via COMTEX) -- Christianity.com (http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?http://blog.s-u-b-s-c-r-i-p-t-i-o-n.com/?christianity.com/), the online destination for Christian...Gospel Coalition. From April 21st - 23rd, Christianity.com will be streaming The Gospel Coalition...


  • Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present.(Review)(Brief Article)
  • The Historian; Sep 22, 1998; ; 700+ Words Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century...seven- year (1985-1992) History of Christianity in China Project inspired by John Fairbank...rather on the roles and dynamics of Christianity as it functioned in Chinese society...


  • Christianity.com Selects Adforce for Ad Management and Delivery Services; AdForce to Assist Network Targeting Large Online Christian Audience.
  • PR Newswire; Nov 1, 2000; 700+ Words ...least developed online user group, Christianity.com has the potential to serve and...87 million individuals worldwide. "Christianity.com represents the interests of a...officer of AdForce. "AdForce will help Christianity.com's advertisers reach its audience...


  • Christianity through reform eyes: Kaufmann Kohler's scholarship on Christianity.
  • American Jewish History; Jun 1, 2001; ; 700+ Words ...America, wrote a series of articles on Christianity for the Jewish Encyclopedia. Using...to educate Jews as to the nature of Christianity and its relation to Judaism. (1...encounter a Jewish view of Jesus, early Christianity, and Jewish-Christian relationships...


  • United and divided: Christianity, tradition and identity in two south coast Papua New Guinea villages
  • The Australian Journal of Anthropology; Jan 1, 2003; ; 700+ Words ...colonisation. They were both introduced to Christianity by the London Missionary Society in...generalities about the similar adoption of Christianity by the Motu and the Hula are no longer...generalities about the engagement with Christianity within one or the other group, as...


  • Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880-1920.(Book Review)
  • Church History; Dec 1, 2002; ; 700+ Words ...male attributes" (11). Muscular Christianity evangelized boys and men through activities...the church. Proponents of muscular Christianity--Josiah Strong, G. Stanley Hall...on studies of nineteenth-century Christianity's "feminization." Scholars such...


  • World Christianity and Christian mission: are they compatible? Insights from the Asian churches.(Essay)
  • International Bulletin of Missionary Research; Oct 1, 2008; ; 700+ Words ...theological and pastoral compatibility. If Christianity is already a world religion, is there...carried out in the context of world Christianity? These two questions are made all...complex by the fact that both "world Christianity" and "Christian mission" are today...


  • How Christianity spread
  • The Virginia Quarterly Review; Apr 1, 2000; ; 700+ Words ...comprehensive yet digestible history of Christianity involves at least three obstacles...fine but already lengthy A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada, for...hoping to write an appealing history of Christianity around the globe. Others have tried...


  • The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 8: World Christianities c. 1815 - c. 1914/The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 9: World Christianities c. 1914 - c. 2000
  • Trinity Journal; Apr 1, 2008; ; 700+ Words ...Stanley, eds. The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 8: World Christianities c...McLeod, ed. The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 9: World Christianities c...00. The dramatic shift in global Christianity is gaining ever greater academic attention...


  • The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History.
  • Theological Studies; Jun 1, 1997; ; 700+ Words ...are interested in the beginnings of Christianity. For over a decade he has indefatigably...to the question: What gave rise to Christianity? In this study he reduces the question...sets out to "reconstruct the rise of Christianity on the basis of many inferences from...


  • Whose Religion Is Christianity?: The Gospel Beyond the West.(SHORTER NOTICES)(Book Review)
  • Theological Studies; Sep 1, 2005; ; 700+ Words WHOSE RELIGION Is CHRISTIANITY? THE GOSPEL BEYOND THE WEST...context but with implications for Christianity in other contexts. In 1978, Karl...of a new epoch in the history of Christianity--the emergence of a world Church...


  • Christianity moves south: Influence of industrialized nations fades
  • Sunday Gazette-Mail; Jun 23, 2002; ; 700+ Words When scholars talk about the death of Christianity and the rise of the secular state, Pennsylvania...Latin America, Africa and Asia. There, Christianity is not only alive but thriving. "Christianity is not in free fall," said Jenkins...


  • Christianity growing fast in parts of Latin America, Africa, Asia.(Knight Ridder Newspapers)
  • Knight Ridder/Tribune News Service; Apr 24, 2002; ; 700+ Words When scholars talk about the death of Christianity and the rise of the secular state, Penn...Latin America, Africa and Asia. There, Christianity is not only alive but thriving. "Christianity is not in free fall," said Jenkins...


  • Whose Religion Is Christianity? The Gospel Beyond the West.(SHORTER NOTICES)(Book Review)
  • Theological Studies; Jun 1, 2005; ; 700+ Words WHOSE RELIGION IS CHRISTIANITY? THE GOSPEL BEYOND THE WEST...context but with implications for Christianity in other contexts. In 1978, Karl...of a new epoch in the history of Christianity--the emergence of a world Church...


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  • 2. AEI - II. The Role of Christianity in China ... Home II. The Role of Christianity in China. Thursday, November 12, 2009. ... II. The Role of Christianity in China. The first Christian ...


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  • 7. Articles ; Commentary ... Based Initiative? The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success, by Rodney Stark. By Christopher ... February 27, 2006


  • 8. AEI - IV. The State's Response: Confucianism and Morality ... ... Recent years have also seen a revival of anti-Christian sentiment among some intellectuals who view Christianity as a form of Western imperialism. ...


  • 9. Articles ; Commentary ... It is indisputably derived from Christianity and variations on Christianity, but its distinctive and constituting doctrines are irreconcilable with even a very ... December 17, 2007


  • 10. AEI - IV. The State's Response: Confucianism and Morality ... ... Recent years have also seen a revival of anti-Christian sentiment among some intellectuals who view Christianity as a form of Western imperialism. ...




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  • Philippine president to relinquish ruling party chairmanship... Xinhuanet 2009-11-11 19:29 Philippine president to relinquish ruling party chairmanship MANILA, Nov. 11 (Xinhua) Philippine President Gloria MacapagalArroyo is set to relinquish the chairmanship of ruling party LakasKampi CMD (... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/11/content_12435173.htm Al-Qaida in Yemen warns against Iran Xinhuanet 2009-11-11 03:22 ...'s dangerous plots. In an audio recording posted on an Islamist website, Mohamed bin Abdul Rahman alRashid, one of the Saudi most wanted suspected terrorist, said "Shiite Iran poses an extreme danger to Sunnis of Yemen and Saudi Arabia than Jews or Christians." "Driven by a greed to take over Muslim countries, Shiite Iran has long been plotting to install a Hezbollahlike group to occupy areas at the jointborder of Yemen and Saudi Arabia," alRashid added,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/11/content_12427631.htm Reading -- origin of children's ambition Xinhuanet 2009-11-10 15:26 ...s love of reading, the International Children's Book Day, which was initiated in 1967 by the International Board on Books for Young People, has been observed every year since on April 2 , birthday of Danish fairy tale author Hans Christian Andersen. Meanwhile, a number of countries have launched activities to encourage children's reading. In the United States,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/10/content_12425141.htm Liverpool tie 2-2 with Birmingham City with controversial pe... Xinhuanet 2009-11-10 08:41 ... Although there seemed no body contact between the two players, the referee stoutly awarded a penalty kick for the hosts. Then the visitors' furious protest could not discourage Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard to slot in the equalizer. Christian Benitez headed for Birmingham City on 26 minutes before Cameron Jerome's unexpected long shot before halftime gave the visitors a lead.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/10/content_12421068.htm Israelis concerned Hezbollah's entry into cabinet to dim pea... Xinhuanet 2009-11-09 23:03 ..., he does believe it will be more difficult for Hezbollah to take unilateral action as it will have more senior government partners carefully watching its every move. On the other hand, he does not think Hezbollah will disarm, despite pressure from Christian factions in Lebanon and from the United Nations. UN Security Council Resolution 1701, approved in August 2006, calls for "the extension of the control of the government of Lebanon over all Lebanese territory,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/09/content_12420173.htm Muslim rebels want U.S. Secretary of State to drop by in S P... Xinhuanet 2009-11-08 11:11 ... The peace talks between the government and the 11,800member MILF collapsed in August 2008 after the two sides failed to sign an agreement on ancestral domain, prompting some rebel commanders to launch deadly attacks on Christian communities in Mindanao. Ancestral domain refers to the MILF's demand for territory that will constitute a Muslim homeland.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/08/content_12409773.htm Lebanon's new cabinet still in absence as negotiations conti... Xinhuanet 2009-11-05 06:47 ... Hariri resigned as prime ministerdesignate, but reappointed only one week later. The latest optimism over the imminent formation of a new government was dashed out on Wednesday as one of the opposition Christian leader Michel Aoun refused Hariri's offer for five seatsin the new cabinet, including the telecommunications and energy ministries. There were some reports earlier this week that the cabinet was expected to be formed on Thursday.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/05/content_12387892.htm Hundreds of families flee as Muslim rebels seen massing up i... Xinhuanet 2009-11-04 21:53 ... The peace talks between the government and the 11,800member MILF collapsed in August 2008 after the two sides failed to sign an agreement on ancestral domain, prompting some rebel commanders to launch deadly attacks on Christian communities in Mindanao. Ancestral domain refers to the MILF's demand for territory that will constitute a Muslim homeland.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/04/content_12387338.htm Manila hopeful reopening talks with MILF, leftist rebels nex... Xinhuanet 2009-11-04 16:31 ..., the armed wing of the CPP and NDF as a terrorist group, while peace negotiations with the MILF collapsed in August 2008 after the two sides failed to sign an agreement on ancestral domain, prompting some rebel commanders to launch deadly attacks on Christian communities in Mindanao. Ancestral domain refers to the MILF's demand for territory that will constitute a Muslim homeland.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/04/content_12386174.htm World largest malaria vaccine trial underway in Africa Xinhuanet 2009-11-04 15:25 ...s (WHO) standard infant vaccines. "This historic trial could lead to the availability of a vaccine with the potential to save the lives of hundreds of thousands of African children, if the data are positive," said Dr. Christian Loucq, director of the PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative. "But development is only half the mission; MVI and its partners are committed to ensuring this vaccine reaches those who need it most.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/04/content_12385519.htm Honduran Congress consults Supreme Court on agreement to end... Xinhuanet 2009-11-04 10:29 ..." The Honduran Congress consists of 128 deputies, 62 from the rightwing Liberal Party, 55 from the opposition National Party, five from the Democratic Unification party, two from the Innovation and Unity Party, and four from the Christian Democratic Party. To be restored to power, Zelaya needs at least 65 votes. Also on Tuesday, a truthfinding commission led by former Chilean President Roberto Lagos and U.S.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/04/content_12383869.htm Clinton criticizes Turkey for shrinking Christian population... Xinhuanet 2009-11-03 05:39 Clinton criticizes Turkey for shrinking Christian population ISTANBUL, Nov. 2 (Xinhua) Former U.S. President Bill Clinton on Monday criticized Turkey over shrinking its Christian population by closing the Halki International Seminary,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-11/03/content_12374026.htm HK launches interpretation service for ethnic minorities Xinhuanet 2009-10-31 12:46 ... according to the Hong Kong government website. The service, provided under the funding grant of the Constitutional and Mainland A ffairs Bureau of Hong Kong, is operated by the Hong Kong Christian Service as part of the services of their Center for Harmony and Enhancement of Ethnic Minority Residents (CHEER).... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/31/content_12365141.htm Defending champion Wang out of English Table Tennis Open Xinhuanet 2009-10-31 09:45 ...t set any goal for himself this time. Wang could continue his journey in the men's double as he and partner Ma Long beat Daniel Gorak and Wang Zeng Yi from Poland 41. Ma Lin and Xu Xin are going to meet German Timo Boll and Christian Suss in the quarterfinals on Saturday. Besides, Liu Shiwen, Ding Ning and Guo Yan all booked their places in the women's round 16, but Li Xiaodan was defeated by Japanese Ai Fukuhara.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/31/content_12363852.htm White House adviser defends auto bailout, new aid to GMAC Xinhuanet 2009-10-30 13:58 ... "The auto investments have been important for turning around an industry where a lot of jobs were at stake," reports reaching here quoted Romer as saying during a roundtable meeting with reporters sponsored by the Christian Science Monitor newspaper. She also said the U.S. Treasury Department's plan to invest up to 5.6 billion dollars in GMAC had been in the works since May. The Detroit News paper reported this week that an agreement on additional aid,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/30/content_12360472.htm Adopted Chinese boy looking for answers Xinhuanet 2009-10-29 09:52 　　 Oct. 29 For eight years, Christian Norris, a Chinese boy adopted by an American woman from Easton, Maryland, was tormented by the thought: "Was I abandoned by my Chinese parents?" This disturbing idea led to the 18yearold rejecting all things Chinese.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/29/content_12353887.htm Merkel reelected German chancellor Xinhuanet 2009-10-28 18:27 ... Merkel received 323 votes in the 622member lower house of German parliament, or Bundestag, where her conservative coalition boasts a comfortable majority. Merkel and her 16member cabinet of Christian Democrats, the Bavarian Christian Social Union and probusiness Free Democrats were due to be sworn in later in the day.... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/28/content_12349261.htm Norbert Lammert re-elected president of German lower house Xinhuanet 2009-10-27 21:29 Oct. 27 (Xinhua) Norbert Lammert from the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), German Chancellor Angela Merkel's party, was reelected on Tuesday as the President of the lower house of the German parliament. Lammert, 61, won a majority of votes in the 622member lower house,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/27/content_12342326.htm Merkel's party nods coalition's policy Xinhuanet 2009-10-27 02:42 s party nods coalition's policy BERLIN, Oct. 26 (Xinhua) German Chancellor Angela Merkel's party, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), on Monday approved the policy platform of the new coalition government for the next four years. CDU delegates from across Germany held a convention in Berlin and gave a "yes"... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/27/content_12335012.htm U.S. says its role in peace process up to Philippine governm... Xinhuanet 2009-10-26 18:50 ... is the largest group battling for selfrule in Mindanao. Negotiations collapsed in August 2008 after both sides failed to sign an agreement on ancestral domain, prompting rogue MILF commanders and their men to launch deadly attacks on mostly Christian communities in Mindanao. The renewed fighting has killed over 100 and displaced approximately 300,000 people, many of whom were still in evacuation centers. After more than a year of stalled negotiations,... http://news.e-x-p-l-o-r-e.com/?xinhuanet.com/english/2009-10/26/content_12331848.htm 1 [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] >>


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